Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics, 2025, Vol.13, No.6, 265-274 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/cge 267 pain on a uniform scale. They are easy to use, reliable in results, and can reflect changes in pain, and are applicable to daily clinical work and scientific research (Belayneh et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022). Multidimensional assessment tools, such as the Brief Pain Scale (BPI) and the McGill Pain Questionnaire, can provide more information, including the nature of pain, its impact on daily functioning, and emotional responses, etc. Standardized pain classification systems, such as the Edmonton Cancer Pain Classification System (ECS-CP) and IASP standards, can help doctors determine the causes of pain (such as nosgenic, neurogenic or mixed) and select targeted treatment methods accordingly (Nijs et al., 2023). At present, more and more people attach importance to the use of patient-reported results (PRO) because it can truly reflect patients' subjective feelings about pain and the impact of pain on life (Ehrlich et al., 2024). In scientific research, the uniform application of validated assessment tools and the clear documentation of pain-related results are of great significance for comparing the advantages and disadvantages of different intervention measures and promoting the development of cancer pain management (Belayneh et al., 2022; Snijders et al., 2023). 3 Non-Pharmacological Intervention Strategies for Tumor Pain Management 3.1 Psychological and cognitive intervention Psychological and cognitive interventions, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness intervention (MBIs), are increasingly being applied in cancer pain management. Multiple comprehensive analyses have shown that mindfulness interventions, including mindfulness-based Stress reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), can significantly alleviate pain, anxiety, depression, and cancer-related fatigue, and the effects often persist for several months after the intervention ends (Chayadi et al., 2022). These methods are more effective for patients with early-stage cancer and younger patients, and also help improve the quality of life and emotional management ability (Lin et al., 2022; Chang et al., 2023). CBT and psychological education are equally effective, especially in dealing with cancer-related fatigue and psychological distress. Among them, mindfulness-based stress reduction shows the strongest effect among various psychosocial interventions (Yuan et al., 2022; Paley et al., 2023). Although the effect is positive, the current research still has some limitations. Reports indicate that the results of different studies vary greatly, and it is not entirely clear exactly how mindfulness intervention works (Carney et al., 2023). Furthermore, the content and effects of various mindfulness programs are not consistent. For this reason, more large-scale randomized controlled trials with rigorous design and sufficient sample size will be needed in the future to verify its effect and find the most suitable application method. Even so, some authoritative institutions, including the Society for Behavioral Medicine and the World Health Organization, still recommend mindfulness intervention as an adage treatment for persistent cancer pain and psychological distress (Pilafas and Lyrakos, 2022; Perez-Lopez et al., 2025). 3.2 Physical and traditional medical therapies Physical and traditional medical therapies, such as acupuncture, massage and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), are often used as adjunctive methods in addition to drug analgesia during cancer treatment. High-quality research has confirmed that acupuncture can effectively relieve cancer pain. Comprehensive analysis shows that its effect is superior to no treatment, simulated acupuncture or conventional care, and the side effects caused are milder (Faria et al., 2024). If acupuncture is combined with traditional Chinese medicine or conventional painkillers, it can not only enhance the effect of pain relief and improve the quality of life, but also help reduce the adverse reactions caused by opioid drugs (Figure 1) (Zhou et al., 2024; Xie et al., 2025). Massage therapy also has certain effects, especially for patients in palliative care or hospice care. It can relieve pain in the short term, improve coping ability and quality of life (Xu, 2025; Yan et al., 2025). The supporting evidence for TENS is still insufficient. Recent analyses have shown that there is no significant difference in its analgesic effect compared with the control group, indicating that this therapy still requires more research and unified operation methods (Kaye et al., 2025). Both acupuncture and massage can help patients reduce the dosage of painkillers, relieve other discomforts such as fatigue and insomnia, and also bring sustained
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