Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.4, 209-218 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 216 Subunit vaccines, which rely on specific ASFV antigens, have also faced difficulties in providing effective protection. The high glycosylation and low antigen surface density of ASFV envelope proteins pose significant obstacles for inducing a strong humoral immune response (Zhu et al., 2022). Additionally, the potential for incomplete attenuation or virulence reversion in live attenuated vaccines raises safety concerns (Liu et al., 2023). While understanding the mechanisms of immune evasion by ASFV is essential for designing effective vaccines, the inherent complexity of the virus and the incomplete knowledge of immune protection determinants present significant challenges. Continued research is needed to overcome these obstacles and develop safe and effective vaccines for ASFV. 8 Concluding Remarks African swine fever virus (ASFV) employs a variety of complex mechanisms to evade the host immune system, posing significant challenges for disease control and vaccine development. ASFV's immune evasion strategies include inhibiting interferon expression, modulating inflammatory responses, suppressing antigen presentation, and interfering with apoptosis. These mechanisms allow the virus to survive and replicate within the host, increasing the severity of the disease. To effectively combat ASFV, future research should focus on thoroughly analyzing the interactions between viral proteins and host immune pathways, identifying key immune evasion mechanisms, and targeting them for the development of new antiviral drugs and vaccines. Additionally, the exploration of live attenuated vaccines and subunit vaccines should continue. Although these vaccines have shown protective potential, their safety and efficacy need to be comprehensively evaluated under different environmental conditions. Single-cycle viral vaccines represent another promising direction, as they can limit viral replication while eliciting a robust immune response, offering a new approach to balancing vaccine safety and efficacy. A deeper understanding of ASFV's immunopathogenic mechanisms, particularly the role of cytokines in disease progression, will aid in designing vaccines that induce protective immunity without causing excessive inflammation. In conclusion, a multifaceted approach that combines molecular research, innovative vaccine design, and a deep understanding of host-pathogen interactions will be essential to combat ASFV and mitigate its impact on the global swine industry. Acknowledgments The author wish to thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their constructive feedback on this manuscript. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Bosch-Camós L., Alonso U., Esteve-Codina A., Chang C., Martín-Mur B., Accensi F., Muñoz M., Navas M., Dabad M., Vidal E., Pina-Pedrero S., Pleguezuelos P., Caratù G., Salas M., Liu L., Bataklieva S., Gavrilov B., Rodríguez F., and Argilaguet J., 2022, Cross-protection against African swine fever virus upon intranasal vaccination is associated with an adaptive-innate immune crosstalk, PLOS Pathogens, 18(11): e1010931. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1010931 Brookes V., Barrett T., Ward M., Roby J., Hernandez-Jover M., Cross E., Donnelly C., Barnes T., Wilson C., and Khalfan S., 2020, A scoping review of african swine fever virus spread between domestic and free-living pigs, Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68(5): 2643-2656. https://doi.org/10.22541/au.159413143.35147622 Chen Q., Li L., Guo S., Liu Z., Liu L., Tan C., Chen H., and Wang X., 2023, African swine fever virus pA104R protein acts as a suppressor of type I interferon signaling, Frontiers in Microbiology, 14: 1169699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1169699 Cheng M., Kanyema M., Sun Y., Zhao W., Lu Y., Wang J., Li X., Shi C., Wang J., Wang N., Yang W., Jiang Y., Huang H., Yang G., Zeng Y., Wang C., and Cao X., 2023, African swine fever virus L83L negatively regulates the cGAS-STING-Mediated IFN-I pathway by recruiting tollip to promote STING autophagic degradation, Journal of Virology, 97(2): e01923-22. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.01923-22
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