Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.3, 129-141 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 138 pathogens like the Varroa destructor mite have shown promise and should be expanded (Mondet et al., 2020). Third, the global survey underscores the need for comprehensive monitoring and conservation programs that include all pollinators, not just honeybees, to ensure ecosystem stability (Halvorson et al., 2021). Lastly, the impact of climate change on the distribution and severity of invasive species like the small hive beetle highlights the need for adaptive management strategies to mitigate these emerging threats (Cornelissen et al., 2019). By understanding and addressing the regional differences in threats and impacts, and by learning from successful mitigation efforts, we can develop more effective strategies to protect honeybee populations globally. 9 Concluding Remarks The decline in honeybee populations is a multifaceted issue driven by a combination of pathogens, pesticides, and environmental changes. Research has shown that pesticide exposure, particularly neonicotinoids, significantly impacts bee health by reducing survival rates and impairing immune responses. Pathogens such as Nosema spp. and various viruses also play a critical role in weakening bee colonies, often interacting synergistically with pesticides to exacerbate their effects. Environmental changes, including habitat loss and climate change, further compound these stressors, leading to a decline in floral resources and nesting sites, which are essential for bee survival. Addressing the decline in honeybee populations requires an integrated approach that considers the complex interactions between various stressors. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies, which minimize pesticide use and focus on sustainable agricultural practices, have shown promise in reducing the negative impacts on bees. Additionally, improving habitat quality by increasing floral diversity and availability can help mitigate some of the dietary stresses bees face. Effective quarantine measures and better management practices are also crucial in preventing the spread of pathogens and parasites. Future research should focus on understanding the synergistic effects of multiple stressors on bee health under field-realistic conditions. Studies should investigate the long-term impacts of low-dose pesticide exposure combined with pathogen infections on colony survival and reproductive success. There is also a need for more research on non-Apis bee species to fill existing knowledge gaps. Policymakers should consider revising pesticide regulations to account for the interactions between different agrochemicals and their cumulative effects on pollinators. Promoting sustainable farming practices and enhancing habitat quality through conservation efforts can provide long-term benefits for bee populations and the ecosystem services they support. Effective monitoring systems are essential to track pollinator health and inform adaptive management strategies. Acknowledgments The author thanks the two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough review of this study and for their valuable suggestions for improvement. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Alaux C., Brunet J., Dussaubat C., Mondet F., Tchamitchan S., Cousin M., Brillard J., Baldy A., Belzunces L., and Conte Y., 2010, Interactions between Nosema microspores and a neonicotinoid weaken honeybees (Apis mellifera), Environmental Microbiology, 12(3): 774-782. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02123.x Annoscia D., Piccolo F., and Nazzi F., 2012, How does the mite Varroa destructor kill the honeybee Apis mellifera? Alteration of cuticular hydrcarbons and water loss in infested honeybees, Journal of Insect Physiology, 58(12): 1548-1555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2012.09.008 Arce A., David T., Randall E., Rodrigues A., Colgan T., Wurm Y., and Gill R., 2017, Impact of controlled neonicotinoid exposure on bumblebees in a realistic field setting, Journal of Applied Ecology, 54(4): 1199-1208. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12792 Aufauvre J., Biron D., Vidau C., Fontbonne R., Roudel M., Diogon M., Viguès B., Belzunces L., Delbac F., and Blot N., 2012, Parasite-insecticide interactions: a case study of Nosema ceranae and fipronil synergy on honeybee, Scientific Reports, 2(1): 326. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00326
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