Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 93-105 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 100 combination of prothioconazole and tebuconazole has shown significant reductions in Fusariumhead blight (FHB) and deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination in wheat, with the most effective treatment reducing FHB index by 76% and DON by 71% (Willyerd et al., 2012). Similarly, azoxystrobin, when used in combination with Trichoderma species, provided substantial protection against the maize late wilt pathogen, Magnaporthiopsis maydis, demonstrating the potential of integrated chemical and biological control methods (Gordani et al., 2023). The mode of action of these fungicides involves inhibiting key enzymes in the fungal biosynthetic pathways. Prothioconazole and Tebuconazole inhibit the demethylation of lanosterol, a crucial step in ergosterol biosynthesis, which is essential for fungal cell membrane integrity. Azoxystrobin, on the other hand, inhibits mitochondrial respiration by blocking the electron transport chain at the cytochrome bc1 complex, leading to energy depletion and fungal cell death (Gordani et al., 2023). These modes of action not only reduce fungal growth but also limit the production of mycotoxins, thereby enhancing crop safety and yield. 6.2 Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches Integrated Pest Management (IPM) combines multiple strategies to manage fungal pathogens effectively while minimizing the reliance on chemical fungicides. The integration of genetic resistance, fungicide application, and optimized agricultural practices has shown promising results. For example, combining moderately resistant cultivars with fungicide treatments significantly reduced FHB and DON levels in wheat, with the most effective combinations achieving up to 98.5% reduction in DON contamination (Mesterházy et al., 2017). This approach highlights the importance of using resistant cultivars to enhance the efficacy of fungicides. Moreover, IPM strategies also involve optimizing fungicide application techniques. The use of side-spraying nozzles, for instance, has been shown to improve fungicide coverage and efficacy. A study demonstrated that a new nozzle combination reduced visual FHB scores by 50% compared to standard nozzles, emphasizing the role of application technology in IPM (Mesterházy et al., 2017). Additionally, integrating biological control agents such as Bacillus subtilis with chemical fungicides has been effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in maize, further supporting the benefits of a holistic IPM approach (Guimarães et al., 2020). 6.3 Resistance management Resistance management is a critical component of sustainable fungal pathogen control. The overuse and misuse of fungicides can lead to the development of resistant fungal strains, rendering chemical treatments ineffective. Studies have shown that integrating fungicide applications with genetic resistance can mitigate the risk of resistance development. For instance, the combination of resistant cultivars and fungicide treatments not only provided effective control of FHB and DON but also reduced the likelihood of resistance development by diversifying the selection pressure on the pathogen population (Willyerd et al., 2012; Salgado et al., 2014). Furthermore, the use of fungicides with different modes of action in rotation or combination can help manage resistance. For example, alternating between fungicides that inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis and those that disrupt mitochondrial respiration can reduce the risk of resistance development. This strategy is supported by findings that show the effectiveness of combining different fungicides to achieve better control and delay resistance (Moraes et al., 2022; Gordani et al., 2023). Additionally, the integration of biological control agents, which have different mechanisms of action compared to chemical fungicides, can further enhance resistance management and provide a sustainable approach to fungal pathogen control (Guimarães et al., 2020). 7 Monitoring and Early Detection 7.1 Field surveillance techniques Field surveillance techniques are essential for the early detection and management of Fusariumand other fungal pathogens in maize. Traditional methods involve visual inspection of crops for symptoms such as discoloration, wilting, and mold growth. However, these methods can be subjective and may not detect infections until they are well-established. Recent advancements have introduced more sophisticated techniques such as the use of
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