Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 93-105 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 96 Mielniczuk et al. (2020) studied crop diseases caused by Fusariumspp. and the resulting toxin contamination and impacts on human and animal health. Fusariumhead blight (FHB) and ear rot in grains lead to the production of toxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin, and zearalenone (ZEA). These toxins not only contaminate grains but also affect human and animal health through the food chain. To reduce toxin contamination, the study proposed various strategies, including pre-harvest plant protection measures (agronomic, chemical, and biological methods) and post-harvest treatment methods (physical, chemical, and biological approaches). The research highlighted the importance of preventing and controlling Fusarium toxin contamination. The health risks associated with mycotoxin contamination have led to the establishment of stringent regulations and maximum permissible levels in food and feed by various countries. Despite these measures, mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent problem due to environmental factors and agronomic practices that favor Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production (Ferrigo et al., 2016; Simões et al., 2023). For example, environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity significantly influence the prevalence of Fusarium species and the levels of mycotoxins in maize grains (Czembor et al., 2015). 3.3 Environmental impact The environmental impact of Fusarium and other fungal pathogens on maize is multifaceted. These pathogens thrive under specific environmental conditions, and changes in climate can influence their prevalence and severity. For instance, increased rainfall and humidity can promote the growth of Fusariumspecies and the production of mycotoxins, leading to higher contamination levels in maize grains (Czembor et al., 2015). Conversely, extreme weather conditions such as drought can stress maize plants, making them more susceptible to fungal infections (Ferrigo et al., 2016). In addition to the direct effects on maize production, the management practices employed to control Fusarium infections can also have environmental implications. The use of chemical fungicides, while effective in reducing fungal infections, can lead to environmental pollution and the development of fungicide-resistant strains of Fusarium (Mielniczuk et al., 2020). Therefore, integrated management strategies that include biological control methods, such as the use of endophytic fungi, and the cultivation of resistant maize varieties are essential for sustainable agriculture (Abdallah et al., 2018). These approaches not only help in managing Fusariuminfections but also minimize the environmental footprint of maize production. 4 Cultural and Agronomic Practices 4.1 Crop rotation and tillage practices Crop rotation and tillage practices are fundamental strategies in managing Fusariumand other fungal pathogens in maize. Crop rotation, particularly with non-host crops, can significantly reduce the inoculum levels of Fusarium spp. in the soil. For instance, rotating maize with crops like soybean and wheat has been shown to influence the population dynamics of Fusarium species, reducing the prevalence of Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium oxysporum (Marburger et al., 2015). Additionally, incorporating cover crops such as white mustard and Indian mustard in maize-wheat rotations under reduced tillage can decrease mycotoxin levels in subsequent wheat crops, thereby mitigating the risk of Fusariumhead blight (Drakopoulos et al., 2021). Tillage practices also play a crucial role in managing soilborne pathogens. No-till and reduced tillage systems can enhance the populations of beneficial soil microorganisms like actinomycetes and Trichoderma spp., which contribute to the natural suppression of Fusarium spp. (Gil et al., 2008). However, the effectiveness of tillage practices can be influenced by environmental conditions. For example, in regions with favorable weather conditions for Fusariumdevelopment, the impact of tillage on disease incidence may be less pronounced (Lori et al., 2009). Therefore, an integrated approach combining crop rotation and appropriate tillage practices is essential for effective Fusariummanagement.
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