Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 83-92 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 87 vigor, which directly affects the yield. Additionally, the quality of the wheat grains can be compromised due to the bacterial infection, leading to discoloration and potential contamination. This can result in lower market value and reduced suitability for processing and consumption (Weller-Stuart et al., 2017; Krawczyk et al., 2020a). The economic losses due to reduced yield and quality can be substantial, especially in regions where wheat is a major crop. 4.3 Economic implications for wheat production The economic implications of Pantoea ananatis infection in wheat fields are considerable. The bacterium's ability to cause disease in wheat can lead to significant financial losses for farmers due to decreased yields and compromised grain quality. The cost of managing the disease, including the use of resistant cultivars, eradication of infected plant material, and potential use of bacteriophages, adds to the economic burden (Weller-Stuart et al., 2017). Furthermore, the widespread distribution of P. ananatis and its ability to infect multiple hosts, including economically important crops like maize and rice, underscores the need for effective management strategies to mitigate its impact on wheat production (Weller-Stuart et al., 2017; Bragard et al., 2023). Pantoea ananatis poses a serious threat to wheat production, with identifiable symptoms that lead to significant yield and quality losses. The economic implications are profound, necessitating comprehensive management approaches to control the spread and impact of this emerging pathogen. 5 Detection and Diagnosis 5.1 Traditional methods for detecting Pantoea ananatis Traditional methods for detecting Pantoea ananatis primarily involve phenotypic and biochemical assays. These methods include the use of the Biolog’s Gen III system, which allows for the identification of bacterial strains based on their metabolic profiles. Additionally, pathogenicity tests on host plants are conducted to confirm the presence of P. ananatis by observing disease symptoms such as brownish lesions with clear margins and yellow halos on wheat leaves (Krawczyk et al., 2020b). These traditional methods, while useful, often require extensive time and labor, and may not always provide the specificity needed for accurate identification. 5.2 Molecular and genomic diagnostic tools Molecular and genomic diagnostic tools have significantly improved the detection and identification of Pantoea ananatis. Techniques such as 16S rRNA and gyrB gene sequencing are commonly used to identify bacterial strains with high accuracy. Multi-locus sequence analysis (MLSA) of concatenated sequences of housekeeping genes (e.g., atpD, fusA, gyrB, rplB, and rpoB) further enhances the precision of these identifications (Krawczyk et al., 2020a). Moreover, species-specific PCR assays have been developed to rapidly and reliably detect P. ananatis. These assays utilize primers designed to target specific genes unique to P. ananatis, allowing for quick identification even in mixed bacterial populations (Shin et al., 2022). A multiplex PCR scheme has also been established, which can distinguish between different species within the genus Pantoea and detect P. ananatis in various samples, including plant tissues and seeds (Kini et al., 2021). These molecular tools offer high sensitivity, specificity, and cost-efficiency, making them invaluable for plant protection services and epidemiological surveillance. 5.3 Challenges in accurate and early diagnosis Despite the advancements in molecular and genomic diagnostic tools, several challenges remain in the accurate and early diagnosis of Pantoea ananatis. One major challenge is the phenotypic similarity between P. ananatis and other closely related species within the genus Pantoea, which can lead to misidentification when relying solely on traditional methods (Shin et al., 2022). Another challenge is the presence of non-pathogenic strains of P. ananatis in various environmental niches, which complicates the identification of pathogenic strains. This bacterium's ability to exist as a saprophyte or plant
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