Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 61-71 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 66 Warimwe et al. (2021) highlight that the development pipelines for human and veterinary vaccines share structural similarities, starting with target product profiling and immunogen design, followed by preclinical studies. Human vaccines undergo extensive phase I-III trials, while veterinary vaccines are tested for safety and efficacy in natural disease hosts and later in field trials. Despite differing regulatory requirements and clinical data needs, common challenges like optimizing immunogenicity are addressed similarly in both pipelines. Human vaccine development is notably more time-consuming and costly compared to veterinary vaccines. The figure also highlights that certain stages, such as the development of the ChAdOx1 RVF vaccine, can be conducted in parallel for both human and veterinary applications, using the same manufacturing starting material. 5.2 Case study 2: overcoming development challenges The development of vaccines for rapidly evolving pathogens, such as the African Swine Fever (ASF) virus, presents significant challenges. Traditional vaccine technologies often fall short due to the high variability and complexity of such pathogens. However, novel approaches, including the use of nanoparticle-based vaccines, have shown promise in overcoming these hurdles. Nanovaccines, which utilize self-assembling proteins, virus-like particles, and other nanomaterials, offer enhanced efficacy and safety. These technologies have been pivotal in developing vaccines that can adapt to the rapid evolution of pathogens, ensuring timely and effective responses to outbreaks (Aida et al., 2021; Celis-Giraldo et al., 2021; Gebre et al., 2021). 5.3 Lessons learned from case studies Several key lessons can be drawn from these case studies: Rapid Adaptation of Human Vaccine Technologies: The swift adaptation of human vaccine technologies, such as mRNA vaccines, for veterinary use underscores the importance of a One Health approach. This strategy facilitates the sharing of knowledge and resources across human and veterinary medicine, accelerating the development of effective vaccines for emerging pathogens (Excler et al., 2021; Warimwe et al., 2021; Francis, 2022). Innovative Vaccine Platforms: The use of novel vaccine platforms, including nanoparticle-based vaccines, has proven essential in addressing the limitations of traditional vaccines. These platforms offer greater flexibility and efficacy, particularly for pathogens with high genetic variability and complex antigens (Aida et al., 2021; Celis-Giraldo et al., 2021; Gebre et al., 2021). Regulatory and Manufacturing Considerations: The success of rapid vaccine development also hinges on understanding and navigating regulatory requirements. Streamlined processes and clear guidelines from regulatory bodies can significantly expedite the development and licensure of new vaccines, ensuring timely responses to emerging threats (Thomas et al., 2019; Francis, 2022). Economic and Social Data Integration: Incorporating economic and social data into the vaccine development process can enhance decision-making and resource allocation. This approach, already common in human vaccinology, can provide valuable insights for prioritizing and implementing veterinary vaccines, ultimately improving animal health outcomes (Thomas et al., 2019). By learning from these case studies, the veterinary field can continue to advance vaccine development, ensuring preparedness for future emerging pathogens and safeguarding both animal and human health. 6 Global Collaboration and Initiatives 6.1 International partnerships and networks International partnerships and networks play a crucial role in the development and distribution of veterinary vaccines for emerging pathogens. The Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network (DCVMN) has been instrumental in fostering international cooperation, bringing together vaccine manufacturing experts and leaders from both local and global public health organizations. These collaborations have facilitated the sharing of best practices, quality control measures, and the development of harmonized standards, which are essential for
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