Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.1, 17-29 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 24 mammals, turtles, and fish, as well as invertebrates like corals, crustaceans, and echinoderms (Zgouridou et al., 2021). For instance, recent disease-driven mass mortalities have impacted foundation species such as corals and seagrasses, herbivores like abalone, and keystone predators like sea stars, contributing to extreme population declines and endangerment (Harvell and Lamb, 2020). The increase in disease reports in several marine groups over recent decades underscores the urgency of understanding disease dynamics to formulate effective resource management policies (Zgouridou et al., 2021). 7.2 Economic impacts on fisheries and aquaculture Marine diseases have profound economic impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. Infectious diseases can reduce the growth, fecundity, and survivorship of commercial species, thereby diminishing their marketability and economic value (Lafferty et al., 2015; Behringer et al., 2020). For example, diseases affecting farmed oysters, shrimp, abalone, and various fishes, particularly Atlantic salmon, result in billions of dollars in losses annually. The economic losses have driven research efforts to minimize the negative impacts of diseases on these industries. However, the relationship between fisheries, aquaculture, and disease transmission is complex and reciprocal, with different outcomes at various ecological levels (Minich et al., 2020). Additionally, parasites acquired during early marine migration can significantly impact fish recruitment, as evidenced by the substantial loss of adult salmon recruitment due to parasitic crustaceans. 7.3 Public health concerns Marine diseases also pose significant public health concerns. The consumption of pathogen-infected seafood, particularly bivalve molluscs, can lead to foodborne illnesses in humans (Zgouridou et al., 2020). Climate change exacerbates this issue by accelerating the growth and spread of pathogenic microorganisms and toxic microalgae in marine habitats, increasing the risk of human exposure to these pathogens. Furthermore, the use of antibiotics and other chemicals to treat marine diseases in aquaculture can have negative implications for human health, including the potential for antibiotic resistance (Behringer et al., 2020). The interconnectedness of ocean and human health highlights the need for adaptive management approaches to mitigate the impacts of marine diseases in a changing climate (Suffridge et al., 2014). 8 Mitigation and Management Strategies 8.1 Prevention and control measures Prevention and control measures are critical in managing marine pathogen outbreaks. Effective strategies include enhanced surveillance, early detection, and rapid response to outbreaks. Simulation models, such as the DTU-DADS-Aqua, have been developed to predict and manage the spread of infectious diseases in marine aquaculture. These models allow for the exploration of various "what-if" scenarios, helping to optimize surveillance and depopulation strategies to reduce the number of infected sites and outbreak duration (Romero et al., 2021). Additionally, adaptive management approaches are recommended to increase the resilience of ocean systems to climate change, which influences the dynamics of marine diseases (Thurber et al., 2020). Quarantining, culling, and vaccinating, although effective on land, are less successful in marine environments, necessitating the development of new tools and approaches. 8.2 Treatment and remediation techniques Treatment and remediation techniques for marine diseases include both traditional and innovative methods. Traditional methods such as nutrient load reduction are used to mitigate harmful algal blooms, while experimental approaches like artificial mixing and flushing are being adapted to address the impacts of climate change on these blooms (Paerl et al., 2016). Disruption of bacterial quorum sensing is another promising strategy to combat bacterial infections in aquaculture. Techniques such as the inhibition of signal molecule biosynthesis and the application of quorum sensing antagonists have shown potential in reducing virulence and controlling infections (Glidden et al., 2021). For viral pathogens in shellfish, current water treatment practices are insufficient, and there is a need for standardized virus detection methods to manage shellfishborne diseases effectively.
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