Molecular Pathogens 2024, Vol.15, No.1, 17-29 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/mp 23 2021; Farrell et al., 2021). Furthermore, electrochemical sensors and nanotechnology-based smart sensors are being developed to provide rapid, sensitive, and specific detection of pathogens, which are crucial for early warning systems and outbreak prevention (Amiri et al., 2018; Alafeef et al., 2020). 6.2 Remote sensing and in situ observations Remote sensing and in situ observations are increasingly being utilized to monitor marine pathogens and their environmental drivers. Satellite-based remote sensing has advanced significantly, allowing for the detection of marine microorganisms, including harmful algal blooms and bacteria, from space. These technologies have evolved from creating visual representations to developing predictive models that can provide early warnings for disease outbreaks (Grimes et al., 2014). Time series observations and the integration of satellite data with in situ measurements have enhanced our understanding of microbial dynamics and their impact on ocean health (Buttigieg et al., 2018). These methods are particularly valuable for monitoring vast and remote ocean regions that are otherwise difficult to access. 6.3 Early warning systems Early warning systems are essential for mitigating the impact of marine pathogen outbreaks. The integration of molecular techniques, remote sensing, and advanced data analytics has paved the way for more effective surveillance and early detection of pathogens. For example, the combination of eDNA/eRNA monitoring with remote sensing data can provide real-time information on pathogen presence and distribution, enabling proactive responses to potential outbreaks (Amarasiri et al., 2021; Farrell et al., 2021). Additionally, the development of portable NGS and AI-based image diagnosis systems holds promise for reducing labor costs and improving the sensitivity and specificity of pathogen detection in aquatic environments (Figure 3) (Macaulay et al., 2022). These advancements are crucial for establishing robust early warning systems that can prevent large-scale disease outbreaks and protect both human and marine health. Figure 3 Visual diagnostic techniques and examples of their application in specific aquatic pathogens (Adopted from Macaulay et al., 2022) 7 Impact on Marine Ecosystems and Human Health 7.1 Effects on marine biodiversity Marine pathogens have significant impacts on marine biodiversity, often leading to declines in various species. Disease outbreaks can alter the structure and function of marine ecosystems, affecting vertebrates such as
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