Bt Research 2024, Vol.15, No.3, 131-140 http://microbescipublisher.com/index.php/bt 134 (Kumar et al., 2019). However, the increasing demand for organic farming and residue-free commodities is expected to drive the adoption of biopesticides, offering significant benefits to sustainable agriculture and public health programs (Gupta and Dikshit, 2010; Villaverde et al., 2014). Regulatory frameworks that facilitate the approval and registration of biopesticides, while ensuring their safety and efficacy, are crucial for their widespread adoption and integration into integrated pest management (IPM) programs (Matten et al., 2008). Figure 1 Environmental behaviors of Bt protein (A) and its three-dimensional structures (B). I, II, and III: domains I, II, and III (Adopted from Li et al., 2022) Image caption: Residual accumulated Bt proteins in the environment exceed the consumption by insect larvae and degradation by environmental factors, leading to potential impacts on the abundances, community structures, and functions of natural soil microbial communities. Domain I (the pore-forming domain) is located at the N-terminal of the Cry active protein and consists of a bundle of seven antiparallel α-helices. The domain is cleaved by proteolytic enzymes during toxin activation and is associated with toxins entering cell membranes and pore formation. Domain II (the central domain) comprises three antiparallel β-folds and is a receptor recognition and binding site that determines the specificity of insecticidal protein targets. Domain III (the galactose-binding domain) comprises two antiparallel β-folds and is related to receptor binding and pore formation (Adopted from Li et al., 2022) Figure 2 As a crop protection measure, topically-applied dsRNA should be effective against specific pests and pathogens while avoiding unintended adverse consequences (Adopted from Fletcher et al., 2020) Image caption: Topically applied double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) can be used to generate resistance to pathogenic viruses and fungi, and pests such as insects. Off-target impacts to be avoided include silencing of crucial host plant and other non-target organism genes. Potential routes of exposure to humans including operators applying the dsRNA along with consumers of treated products could occur via dermal exposure, inhalation, and ingestion (Adopted from Fletcher et al., 2020)
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