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Bt_2024v15n2

2 Overview of Plasmids in Bt 28
2.1 Types and characteristics of plasmids 28
2.2 Role of plasmids in Bt genetics 28
Figure 1 Circular map comparison among pTAND672-2, 28
Image caption: pCH_133-e and pBtoxis display 77% a 28
2.3 Plasmid diversity in Bt strains 29
3 Types of Plasmid-encoded Toxins 29
3.4 Other plasmid-encoded toxins 29
In addition to Cry, Cyt, and Vip toxins, Bt produc 29
In summary, the diverse array of plasmid-encoded t 29
4 Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms 30
4.1 Gene structure and organization 30
4.2 Regulation of toxin gene expression 30
4.3 Mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer 31
5 Functional Analysis of Toxins 31
5.1 Insecticidal activity 31
5.2 Specificity to target insects 31
5.3 Mechanisms of toxicity 31
6 Methods for Characterizing Plasmid-encoded Toxin 31
6.1 Genomic sequencing 31
6.2 Proteomic analysis 32
6.3 Functional assays 32
6.4 Bioinformatics approaches 32
7 Ecological and Evolutionary Implications 32
7.1 Role in Bt evolution 32
7.2 Impact on host range and virulence 33
7.3 Environmental persistence and spread 33
8 Applications in Pest Management 34
8.1 Development of Bt-based biopesticides 34
8.2 Transgenic crops expressing Bt toxins 34
8.3 Strategies to combat resistance 34
9 Concluding Remarks 34
1 Introduction 38
2 Overview of Bt Toxins 39
2.1 Types of Bt toxins 39
2.2 Mode of action in target organisms 39
2.3 Use in agricultural practices 39
3 Non-Target Invertebrates: Categories and Roles 39
3.1 Pollinators 39
3.2 Soil invertebrates 39
3.3 Aquatic invertebrates 39
3.4 Predators and parasitoids 40
4 Field Studies and Real-world Impacts 40
4.1 Long-term field monitoring 40
4.2 Comparative studies with non-Bt areas 40
4.3 Observed ecological changes 40
5 Mechanisms of Non-target Effects 40
5.1 Direct toxicity 40
5.2 Sub-lethal effects 42
5.3 Indirect ecological interactions 42
6 Mitigation and Management Strategies 42
6.1 Development of bt varieties with reduced non-t 42
6.2 Use of buffer zones and refuges 42
6.3 Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches 43
7 Regulatory and Policy Considerations 43
7.1 International regulatory frameworks 43
7.2 Risk assessment rrotocols 43
7.3 Public perception and acceptance 43
8 Concluding Remarks 43
1 Introduction 47

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