Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 243-254 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 248 Pati et al. (2018) found that by encapsulating or binding antigens to nanoparticles, this design allows for prolonged antigen delivery, effectively extending the duration of the immune response. Additionally, nanocarriers can control the release rate of antigens, preventing the release of a large quantity at once, which induces a stronger immune response. The modification of targeting molecules further enhances the efficiency of immune cells in recognizing the antigen. The controlled-release properties of nanovaccines make them an emerging technology for improving vaccine efficacy, particularly in the fields of cancer immunotherapy and infectious disease prevention. 4.3 Dose-sparing effects Nanoparticle vaccines can achieve dose-sparing effects, meaning that lower doses of the antigen are required to elicit a strong immune response. This is particularly beneficial in scenarios where vaccine supply is limited or when dealing with expensive antigens. The enhanced delivery and presentation of antigens by nanoparticles ensure that even small amounts of the antigen are effectively recognized and processed by the immune system (Lung et al., 2020; Bezbaruah et al., 2022). This dose-sparing effect is attributed to the improved stability and targeted delivery of the antigens, which reduces the amount of antigen needed to achieve the desired immune response (Zhao et al., 2014; Pati et al., 2018). 4.4 Versatility in formulation Nanoparticles offer remarkable versatility in vaccine formulation. They can be composed of various materials, including lipids, proteins, metals, and polymers, each providing unique advantages in terms of stability, biocompatibility, and functionality (Smith et al., 2015; Pati et al., 2018). This versatility allows for the design of vaccines that can be tailored to specific diseases and target populations. For example, polymer-based nanoparticles can be engineered to enhance the solubility and stability of antigens, while lipid-based nanoparticles can facilitate the delivery of hydrophobic antigens (Guo et al., 2019). Additionally, nanoparticles can be functionalized with targeting ligands to direct the vaccine to specific cells or tissues, further enhancing the efficacy and safety of the vaccine (Gupta et al., 2022). The ability to co-encapsulate adjuvants and antigens within the same nanoparticle also provides a platform for developing more effective and comprehensive vaccine formulations (Garg and Dewangan, 2020). 5 Safety and Biocompatibility of Nanoparticle Vaccines 5.1 Biodegradability of nanoparticles Biodegradability is a crucial factor in the design of nanoparticle vaccines, as it ensures that the particles can be broken down and eliminated from the body without causing long-term adverse effects. Various natural and synthetic polymers, such as polylactic-co-glycolide (PLGA) and polyanhydrides, are commonly used due to their biodegradable properties. These materials can be engineered to degrade at controlled rates, which helps in the sustained release of antigens and adjuvants, enhancing the immune response while minimizing potential toxicity (Salem, 2015; Guo et al., 2019; Curley and Putnam, 2022). For instance, PLGA nanoparticles have been shown to be effective in delivering synthetic long peptides (SLPs) for cancer immunotherapy, demonstrating both high efficacy and safety profiles (Varypataki et al., 2016). Additionally, biologically derived nanoparticles, which can self-assemble and contain native pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), offer an advantage in terms of biodegradability and biocompatibility, reducing the need for artificial adjuvants (Curley and Putnam, 2022). 5.2 Potential for immunotoxicity While nanoparticle vaccines offer numerous benefits, their potential for immunotoxicity remains a concern. Immunotoxicity can arise from the materials used in the nanoparticles, their size, shape, and surface properties, as well as the immune system's response to these foreign particles. Studies have shown that nanoparticles can enhance antigen uptake and processing by dendritic cells (DCs), but this can also lead to unintended immune activation or suppression (Silva et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2014; Pati et al., 2018). For example, cationic liposomes and PLGA nanoparticles have been found to induce strong immune responses, but their safety profiles need to be carefully evaluated to avoid adverse effects such as inflammation or autoimmunity (Salem, 2015; Varypataki et al., 2016). Moreover, the use of certain adjuvants, like aluminum hydroxide, in combination with nanoparticles can further complicate the immunotoxicity profile, necessitating thorough preclinical and clinical testing (Silva et al., 2019; Curley and Putnam, 2022).
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