Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 243-254 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 247 3.3 Allergy and autoimmune disease vaccines: Potential for nanoparticle vaccines to induce immune tolerance Nanoparticle vaccines hold significant potential in the treatment of allergies and autoimmune diseases by inducing immune tolerance. The ability of nanoparticles to deliver antigens in a controlled manner can help modulate the immune system, reducing hypersensitivity and autoimmune responses. While the clinical application of nanoparticle vaccines in this area is still in its early stages, the principles demonstrated in infectious disease and cancer vaccines provide a strong foundation for future developments. The precise delivery and controlled release capabilities of nanoparticles make them ideal candidates for developing vaccines that can induce long-lasting immune tolerance, potentially transforming the management of allergies and autoimmune diseases (Tenchov et al., 2021; Thi et al., 2021; Jung et al., 2022). 4 Advantages of Nanoparticle Vaccines 4.1 Improved immunogenicity Nanoparticle vaccines have demonstrated a significant enhancement in immunogenicity compared to traditional vaccines. This is primarily due to their ability to mimic the size and structure of pathogens, which facilitates better recognition and uptake by immune cells. Nanoparticles can be engineered to display antigens in a repetitive, ordered array, similar to the surface of a pathogen, thereby enhancing the activation of both B cells and T cells (Kelly et al., 2019). Additionally, nanoparticles can be loaded with adjuvants, which further boost the immune response by stimulating innate immunity and promoting antigen presentation (Smith et al., 2015; Garg and Dewangan, 2020). The use of nanoparticles has been shown to improve the stability and presentation of antigens, leading to stronger and more durable immune responses (Zhao et al., 2014; Bezbaruah et al., 2022). 4.2 Controlled release properties One of the key advantages of nanoparticle vaccines is their ability to provide controlled release of antigens. This controlled release can be achieved through various formulations, such as polymer-based nanoparticles, which allow for the sustained release of antigens over an extended period (Guo et al., 2019). This slow and sustained release ensures prolonged exposure of the immune system to the antigen, thereby enhancing the overall immune response. For instance, hybrid systems like the "PEG-g-PEI/DNA nanoparticle-in-PLGA microsphere" have been developed to integrate the benefits of both nanoparticles and microspheres, resulting in a controlled release that follows near zero-order kinetics (Lu et al., 2020). Such systems not only improve the immunogenicity but also ensure that the antigens are protected from premature degradation (Figure 2) (Pati et al., 2018). Figure 2 Schematic Diagram of Nanocarriers and Their Role in Immunotherapy (Adapted from Pati et al., 2018) Image Caption: The figure illustrates the design of nanocarriers, where antigens can be attached to the surface of the nanoparticles or encapsulated within the core. The surface of the nanoparticles can be modified with targeting molecules (such as antibodies, Fab fragments, peptides, etc.) to enhance their delivery to antigen-presenting cells (APCs), thereby triggering innate and adaptive immune responses (Adapted from Pati et al., 2018)
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