Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 243-254 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 246 Additionally, nanoparticles can be designed to include specific adjuvants that further enhance their immunostimulatory properties. For instance, cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) encapsulated within PEGylated lipid nanoparticles have been shown to target lymph nodes and induce strong CD8+ T cell responses. This nanoparticulate delivery system enhances the efficacy of the adjuvant while minimizing systemic toxicity (Hanson et al., 2015). The combination of delivery and adjuvant effects in nanoparticle vaccines results in more potent and durable immune responses, making them a promising platform for vaccine development. 3 Clinical Applications of Nanoparticle Vaccines 3.1 Infectious diseases: COVID-19 vaccines utilizing lipid nanoparticles Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have played a crucial role in the rapid development and success of COVID-19 vaccines. These nanoparticles serve as delivery vehicles for mRNA, protecting the genetic material and facilitating its delivery into cells. The mRNA-1273 vaccine, developed by Moderna, is a prime example of this technology. It encodes the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 and has demonstrated a 94.1% efficacy in preventing COVID-19 illness, including severe disease, in a phase 3 clinical trial (Baden et al., 2022). The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine also utilizes LNPs to deliver mRNA, showcasing the versatility and effectiveness of this delivery system (Jung et al., 2022). The success of these vaccines underscores the potential of LNPs in addressing infectious diseases rapidly and effectively (Tenchov et al., 2021;Thi et al., 2021; Sarangi et al., 2022). 3.2 Cancer vaccines: nanoparticles used in therapeutic vaccines for tumor-specific antigens Nanoparticle-based cancer vaccines have shown promise in the treatment of various cancers by targeting tumor-specific antigens. One notable example is the use of RNA-lipoplexes for melanoma treatment. These RNA-based vaccines can be personalized to target specific mutations in a patient's tumor, enhancing the immune response against cancer cells. The Lipo-MERIT vaccine, which consists of RNA lipoplexes encoding shared tumor antigens, has successfully transitioned from bench to bedside, demonstrating the feasibility of this approach in clinical settings (Grabbe et al., 2016). Additionally, lipid-mRNA nanoparticles are being explored for their potential in cancer immunotherapy and gene editing techniques, further expanding the therapeutic applications of nanoparticle vaccines in oncology (Wang et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022). Li et al. (2022) discovered that RNA-LNP (lipid nanoparticle) vaccines show great potential in cancer immunotherapy, particularly against tumor-specific antigens. By encoding tumor antigens as mRNA and encapsulating them within lipid nanoparticles, the vaccine can effectively guide the host immune system to generate a strong response against tumors (Figure 1). The nanoparticles enhance the stability of mRNA and improve cellular uptake efficiency, thereby increasing antigen expression and immunogenicity. This approach not only helps in the specific elimination of tumor cells but also offers a personalized and low-side-effect solution for cancer treatment, with broad application prospects. Figure 1 Mechanism of Action of mRNA-LNP (Lipid Nanoparticle) Vaccine in Cancer Immunotherapy (Adapted from Li et al., 2022)
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