Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 243-254 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 244 array on the surface of nanoparticles mimics the natural presentation of pathogens, leading to stronger engagement with B cell receptors and enhanced T cell help in driving B cell activation (Kelly et al., 2019; Nguyen and Tolia, 2021). This study provides a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms of action and clinical applications of nanoparticle vaccines. By synthesizing existing knowledge on the immunological basis, development process, and clinical potential of nanoparticle vaccines, it highlights the transformative impact of nanotechnology on vaccine design and efficacy. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the rational design of next-generation vaccines that can effectively address both existing and emerging infectious diseases. It also offers insights for future vaccine development strategies, contributing to improved global public health outcomes. 2 Types of Nanoparticles Used in Vaccines 2.1 Lipid-based nanoparticles Lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a cornerstone in the development of modern vaccines, particularly highlighted by their pivotal role in the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. These nanoparticles, which include liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers, offer several advantages such as enhanced stability, targeted delivery, and controlled release of antigens (Thi et al., 2021; Namiot et al., 2023). Liposomes, the earliest form of LNPs, have been extensively studied and utilized due to their biocompatibility and ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances. Subsequent generations of LNPs, such as solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers, have been developed to improve physical stability and drug loading capacity (Tenchov et al., 2021). The success of LNPs in the COVID-19 vaccines, such as those developed by Pfizer and Moderna, underscores their potential in vaccine delivery. These LNPs protect the encapsulated mRNA, enhancing its stability and facilitating its delivery to target cells (Sarangi et al., 2022). Moreover, the versatility of LNPs allows for the incorporation of various adjuvants and antigens, making them suitable for a wide range of vaccines, including those for infectious diseases and cancer (Chatzikleanthous et al., 2021). Despite their success, challenges remain in optimizing the physicochemical properties of LNPs for specific applications and understanding their in vivo behavior to further enhance their efficacy and safety (Thi et al., 2021; Namiot et al., 2023). 2.2 Polymer-based nanoparticles Polymer-based nanoparticles represent another significant class of nanocarriers used in vaccine development. These nanoparticles are composed of biodegradable and biocompatible polymers such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), chitosan, and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Polymer-based nanoparticles offer several advantages, including controlled release of antigens, protection of antigens from degradation, and the ability to co-deliver multiple antigens and adjuvants (Zhao et al., 2014; Pati et al., 2018). The versatility in the design of polymer-based nanoparticles allows for the fine-tuning of their size, surface charge, and hydrophobicity, which are critical parameters for optimizing their interaction with the immune system. One of the key benefits of polymer-based nanoparticles is their ability to enhance the immunogenicity of antigens. By providing a sustained release of antigens, these nanoparticles can prolong the exposure of the immune system to the antigen, thereby enhancing the immune response (Pati et al., 2018). Additionally, polymer-based nanoparticles can be engineered to target specific cells or tissues, further improving the efficacy of the vaccine. Despite these advantages, challenges such as potential toxicity, scalability of production, and regulatory hurdles need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of polymer-based nanoparticles in vaccine development (Zhao et al., 2014; Pati et al., 2018). 2.3 Inorganic nanoparticles Inorganic nanoparticles, including gold nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles, and iron oxide nanoparticles, have also been explored for their potential in vaccine delivery. These nanoparticles offer unique properties such as ease of functionalization, stability, and the ability to induce strong immune responses (Zhao et al., 2014; Curley and Putnam, 2022). Gold nanoparticles, for example, can be easily synthesized and functionalized with various
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