Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 243-254 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 243 Research Insight Open Access Nanoparticle Vaccines: Mechanisms of Action and Clinical Applications Jianhui Li Institute of Life Science, Jiyang College of Zhejiang AandF University, Zhuji, 311800, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: jianhui.li@jicat.org Journal of Vaccine Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.5 doi: 10.5376/jvr.2024.14.0023 Received: 07 Aug., 2024 Accepted: 13 Sep., 2024 Published: 27 Sep., 2024 Copyright © 2024 Li, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Li J.H., 2024, Nanoparticle vaccines: Mechanisms of action and clinical applications, Journal of Vaccine Research, 14(5): 243-254 (doi: 10.5376/jvr.2024.14.0023) Abstract In recent years, nanoparticle vaccines have gained widespread application in combating infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy, particularly highlighted by the remarkable success of lipid nanoparticle-based mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the development of nanoparticle vaccines still faces challenges related to manufacturing, stability, and safety. This study analyzes the types of nanoparticle vaccines, their mechanisms of action, and their broad clinical applications. It focuses on the use of lipid, polymer, and inorganic nanoparticles in vaccine development, explaining how they enhance immune responses through antigen presentation, targeted delivery, and adjuvant effects. The study also evaluates the application of nanoparticle vaccines in infectious diseases, cancer, and autoimmune diseases, and reviews the success of nanoparticle-based vaccines in COVID-19. Findings indicate that nanoparticle vaccines not only significantly improve immune responses but also offer controlled release properties and versatile formulation options, making them widely applicable in the fields of infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms and clinical applications of nanoparticle vaccines will not only aid in the development of more efficient and safer vaccines but also promote the advancement of personalized medicine and universal vaccines. The multifunctionality and design flexibility of nanoparticles provide innovative avenues for the development of new vaccines, addressing the limitations of traditional vaccines in immunogenicity and dosage constraints. Keywords Nanoparticle vaccines; Immune activation; Targeted delivery; COVID-19; Vaccine development 1 Introduction Nanoparticle vaccines represent a cutting-edge advancement in the field of immunization, leveraging the unique properties of nanoparticles to enhance vaccine efficacy. These vaccines utilize nanoparticles, which are structures with dimensions ranging from 1 to 1 000 nm, to deliver antigens in a manner that mimics the natural presentation of pathogens, thereby eliciting a robust immune response. The development of nanoparticle vaccines has been driven by the need to address the limitations of traditional vaccines, such as low immunogenicity and the risk of reversion to pathogenic forms in live-attenuated vaccines (Zhao et al., 2014; Pati et al., 2018; Kelly et al., 2019). The concept of nanoparticle vaccines is not entirely new, with the first successful use of virus-like particles (VLPs) for vaccination against Hepatitis B reported nearly four decades ago (Gomes et al., 2017). Since then, the field has expanded significantly, with various types of nanoparticles, including liposomes, polymers, and inorganic particles, being explored for their potential to improve vaccine delivery and efficacy (Cappellano et al., 2021; Curley and Putnam, 2022). Recent advancements in nanotechnology have enabled the precise control of nanoparticle size, shape, and surface properties, which are critical for optimizing antigen presentation and immune activation (Lung et al., 2020; Bezbaruah et al., 2022). Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in understanding the in vivo behavior of nanoparticles and their interactions with the immune system (Zhao et al., 2014). Nanoparticle-based delivery systems offer several advantages over traditional vaccine formulations. These systems can protect antigens from premature degradation, facilitate targeted delivery to antigen-presenting cells, and provide controlled release of antigens, thereby enhancing both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses (Pati et al., 2018; Nguyen and Tolia, 2021; Tursi et al., 2023). Additionally, nanoparticles can be engineered to include adjuvants that further boost the immune response, making them highly versatile platforms for vaccine development (Kelly et al., 2019; Curley and Putnam, 2022). The ability to display antigens in a repetitive, ordered
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