Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 207-216 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 208 2 Current Advances in Multi-Pathogen Vaccine Development 2.1 Technological innovations The development of multi-pathogen vaccines has been significantly propelled by advancements in novel vaccine platforms, including mRNA vaccines, viral vectors, and nanoparticle-based vaccines (Figure 1). mRNA vaccines have garnered substantial attention due to their rapid development and high efficacy, particularly demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic (Ojha et al., 2023). These vaccines utilize synthetic mRNA that encodes antigens from multiple pathogens, inducing an immune response without the need for live virus components (Chen et al., 2022). Viral vectors, such as those based on adenoviruses, have also shown promise in delivering multiple antigens, either from the same pathogen or different pathogens, within a single vector, enabling broad-spectrum immunity (Gebre et al., 2021; Bezbaruah et al., 2022). Nanoparticle-based vaccines offer another innovative approach, where nanoparticles can be engineered to present multiple antigens on their surface, mimicking the structure of pathogens and enhancing immune recognition (Brisse et al., 2020). Figure 1 Vaccine Technologies and Their Evolution (Adapted from Mba et al., 2023) Image caption: The left section showcases traditional vaccine types, such as inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, and polysaccharide-conjugate vaccines, which utilize certain fragments or surface structures of pathogens to induce an immune response. The middle section introduces platform-based emerging vaccine technologies, like DNA and mRNA vaccines, highlighting their potential in addressing the challenge of resistance. The right section focuses on innovative vaccine designs using technologies such as nanomaterials, which can enhance vaccine efficacy by improving antigen delivery and immune response (Adapted from Mba et al., 2023) Significant strides have been made in antigen design, delivery systems, and adjuvants, all of which are crucial for the effectiveness of multi-pathogen vaccines (Zhao et al., 2023). Advances in structural biology and
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