Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 65-75 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 72 Future research should focus on optimizing adjuvant combinations to maximize immune responses while minimizing side effects. The exploration of less conventional adjuvants, such as those derived from exercise, diet, and psychological care, could provide new avenues for enhancing vaccine efficacy in older adults and those with compromised immune systems. Advances in bioinformatics for the identification of tumor neoantigens and the development of targeted delivery platforms for adjuvants will be critical in the design of next-generation cancer vaccines. Furthermore, the potential of PAMPs and DAMPs as new adjuvants warrants further investigation to understand their mechanisms and optimize their use in vaccine formulations. The integration of these novel adjuvants with existing immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors, could lead to more effective and personalized cancer treatments. The successful development of adjuvants that can effectively enhance the immune response to cancer vaccines has significant implications for cancer treatment. By improving the immunogenicity of tumor antigens and overcoming tumor immune evasion mechanisms, these adjuvants can lead to more effective and durable anti-tumor responses. The use of multifunctional protein conjugates and particulate carrier systems can further enhance the delivery and efficacy of cancer vaccines, potentially reducing the need for high doses and minimizing systemic side effects. As our understanding of the tumor microenvironment and immune responses continues to grow, the integration of advanced adjuvant strategies into cancer vaccine development holds promise for improving patient outcomes and advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy. Acknowledgments Thank you to the peer reviewers for their valuable feedback. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Abd-Aziz N., and Poh C.L., 2022, Development of peptide‐based vaccines for cancer, Journal of Oncology, 2022(1): 9749363. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9749363 PMid:35342400 PMCid:PMC8941562 Alarcon N.O., Jaramillo M., Mansour H.M., and Sun B., 2022, Therapeutic cancer vaccines-antigen discovery and adjuvant delivery platforms, Pharmaceutics, 14(7): 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14071448 PMid:35890342 PMCid:PMC9325128 Antonios J.P., Everson R.G., Mochizuki A., Khattab S., Soto H., Romiyo P., Sun M., Moughon D., Billingslea-Yoon E., Odesa S., Li G., Kawaguchi E., Salazar A., Yong W., Schlossman J., Ellingson B., Wang A., Cloughesy T., Prins R., and Liau L.M., 2020, Abstract PR13: Adjuvant TLR-3 administration enhances proinflammatory immune responses and is associated with extended survival in glioblastoma patients treated with dendritic cell vaccination, Cancer Immunology Research, 8(3_Supplement): PR13-PR13. https://doi.org/10.1158/2326-6074.TUMIMM19-PR13 Bowen W.S., Svrivastava A.K., Batra L., Barsoumian H., and Shirwan H., 2018, Current challenges for cancer vaccine adjuvant development, Expert Review of Vaccines, 17(3): 207-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2018.1434000 PMid:29372660 PMCid:PMC6093214 Cai Z., Xin F., Wei Z., Wu M., Lin X., Du X., Chen G., Zhang D., Zhang Z., Liu X., and Yao C., 2020, Photodynamic therapy combined with antihypoxic signaling and CpG adjuvant as an in situ tumor vaccine based on Metal-Organic framework nanoparticles to boost cancer immunotherapy, Advanced Healthcare Materials, 9(1): 1900996. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201900996 PMid:31746153 Chavez C., Everson R., Orpilla J., Lee A., Khattab S., Antonios J., Salazar A., Cloughesy T., Liau L., Sun L., Hugo W., and Prins R., 2020, CTIM-18. dendritic cell vaccination in conjunction with adjuvant tlr-3 agonist administration enhances pro-inflammatory immune responses and is associated with extended survival in malignant glioma patients, Neuro-Oncology, (Suppl 2): ii36. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noaa215.152 PMCid:PMC7650313 Cuzzubbo S., Mangsbo S., Nagarajan D., Habra K., Pockley A.G., and McArdle S.E., 2021, Cancer vaccines: Adjuvant potency, importance of age, lifestyle, and treatments, Frontiers in Immunology, 11: 615240. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.615240 PMid:33679703 PMCid:PMC7927599
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