Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 65-75 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 68 Figure 1 Combination of banNVs with immune checkpoint blockade markedly promoted the response rates and complete regression rates of MC38 tumors in syngeneic mice (Adopted from Ni et al., 2020) Image caption: (A) Left: Experimental design for tumor immunotherapy in C57BL/6 mice with indicated formulations of vaccines (CpG: 2 nmol, R848: 8 μg, and Adpgk: 20 μg); middle: tumor growth curve, and right: mouse survival of C57BL/6 mice after subcutaneous inoculation with MC38 tumor cells (0.3 × 106) (n = 6 to 7 mice per group). (B) Left: Experimental design for combination tumor immunotherapy in C57BL/6 mice with banNVs and aPD-1 (CpG: 2 nmol, R848: 8 μg, Adpgk: 20 μg, and aPD-1: 200 μg); middle: tumor growth curve; and right: mouse survival of C57BL/6 mice after subcutaneous inoculation with MC38 tumor cells (0.3 × 106) (n = 5 to 7 mice per group). (C) Individual tumor growth and survival profile of C57BL/6 mice treated with vaccines and/or aPD-1 (CpG: 2 nmol, R848: 8 μg, Adpgk: 20 μg, and aPD-1: 200 μg) during 40 days (n = 5 to 7 mice per group). (D and E) Tumor growth curve after vaccination with banNVs or combination of banNV and aPD-1, together with lymphocyte depletion by anti-CD8, anti-CD4, or anti-NK1.1 (200 μg). All error bars show SEM. Data are represented as means ± SEM. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, and ***P < 0.001 (one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc test and Student’s t test) (Adopted from Ni et al., 2020) 4.2 Nanotechnology in adjuvant development Nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of adjuvant development by enabling precise control over the physicochemical properties of adjuvants. Nanoplatforms can be engineered to enhance the delivery and presentation of antigens, thereby boosting the immune response. For example, the use of lipid-like materials in mRNA nanovaccines has facilitated efficient mRNA delivery and translation in dendritic cells, while simultaneously stimulating innate immune responses through TLR4 activation (Zhang and Xia, 2021). Furthermore, cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles modified with mannose have shown enhanced uptake by antigen-presenting cells and improved antitumor immune responses (Yang et al., 2018). Inorganic nanomaterials, such as gold nanoparticles, have also been employed to present adjuvants and antigens, significantly enhancing the immunogenicity of cancer vaccines (Li et al.,, 2018; Liu et al., 2021). 4.3 Personalized adjuvants The development of personalized adjuvants tailored to individual patients' tumor profiles represents a cutting-edge approach in cancer vaccine research. Personalized cancer vaccines, which incorporate patient-specific tumor antigens, have shown promise in eliciting robust antitumor immune responses. However, the success of these vaccines heavily relies on the use of potent adjuvants to overcome tumor-induced immunosuppression and enhance immunogenicity. For instance, personalized mRNA cancer vaccines formulated with lipid-like materials have demonstrated significant antitumor efficacy by efficiently delivering tumor antigens and stimulating T cell
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