Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 54-64 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 57 3.2 The successful application of vaccines Several vaccines have demonstrated significant success in reducing AMR. As Jansen and Anderson (2018) discussed the potential of vaccines in reducing antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance, their research found that the Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) and Streptococcus pneumoniae conjugate vaccines not only prevent life-threatening diseases caused by these bacteria but also significantly reduce antibiotic use and resistance. Additionally, vaccines currently in development, such as those targeting Clostridium difficile and Staphylococcus aureus, are also expected to substantially reduce antibiotic use and related resistance issues in the future (Jansen and Anderson, 2018; Qamar et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2021). The introduction of these vaccines has led to a marked decrease in the incidence of infections caused by these pathogens, thereby reducing the need for antibiotics and limiting the spread of resistance. It is essential to increase global vaccine coverage and accelerate the development and approval process of new vaccines to address the rising challenge of antimicrobial resistance (Jansen and Anderson, 2018; Jansen et al., 2018; Jansen et al., 2021). 3.3 Emerging vaccines and technologies Emerging vaccines and novel technologies hold great promise in the fight against AMR. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, which elicit robust immune responses without containing genetic material, are being developed against key bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Clostridium difficile (Saeed et al., 2023). Research indicates that VLP vaccines have great potential in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases and cancer. VLP vaccines can induce high-titer and high-affinity antibody responses without the need for additional adjuvants, making them an ideal vaccine platform (Caldeira et al., 2020; Tariq et al., 2022). These vaccines offer a safer and more stable alternative to traditional vaccines and have shown promising preclinical results. Additionally, cutting-edge techniques such as RNA interference, nanomedicine, and CRISPR-based antimicrobials are under rigorous investigation for their potential to enhance vaccine efficacy and target resistant bacteria (Saeed et al., 2023). The development of new vaccines is also being facilitated by advanced technologies like high-throughput cloning of human B cells and structure-based antigen design. These approaches enable the identification of novel protective antigens and the generation of highly specific recombinant antibodies, which can be used for passive immunization and vaccine development (Tagliabue and Rappuoli, 2018). Such innovations are crucial for addressing the complexity of resistant pathogens and overcoming technical challenges in vaccine development (Tagliabue and Rappuoli, 2018; Costanzo and Roviello, 2023). Vaccination represents a vital strategy in mitigating AMR. By preventing infections, reducing antibiotic use, and limiting the spread of resistant strains, vaccines can play a crucial role in addressing this global health threat. Continued research and development of new vaccines and technologies are essential to fully harness the potential of vaccination in the fight against AMR. 4 Global Perspectives on Vaccination Strategies 4.1 North America In North America, vaccination programs are well-established and cover a wide range of diseases. Vaccines such as those for Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal) have been particularly effective in reducing the incidence of these infections and, consequently, the use of antibiotics (Jansen and Anderson, 2018; Jansen et al., 2021). The impact of these vaccination programs on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been significant. By reducing the number of infections, these vaccines have decreased the need for antibiotics, thereby reducing the selection pressure for resistant strains (Lipsitch and Siber, 2016; Jansen and Anderson, 2018; Buchy et al., 2019). Herd immunity further amplifies these benefits, extending protection to unvaccinated individuals and reducing the overall prevalence of resistant pathogens (Lipsitch and Siber, 2016; Micoli et al., 2021).
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