Journal of Vaccine Research 2024, Vol.14, No.2, 40-53 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/jvr 49 strategies that combine different vaccine modalities, such as live attenuated and subunit vaccines, may enhance the breadth and durability of the immune response (Carter et al., 2016; Jang and Seong, 2019). Finally, conducting large-scale clinical trials in diverse populations is essential to evaluate the safety and efficacy of universal influenza vaccines and to understand how preexisting immunity influences vaccine responses (Zhao and Xu, 2018). 7 Concluding Remarks The pursuit of a universal influenza vaccine has yielded promising results across various studies. Several approaches have demonstrated the potential for broad and long-lasting immune protection. For instance, a single intranasal dose of recombinant adenoviruses expressing influenza A nucleoprotein and matrix 2 has shown to provide durable immune responses and protection against diverse influenza A and B virus strains in animal models. Similarly, chimeric hemagglutinin-based vaccines have been found to induce broad and durable immunity in human trials, targeting the conserved stalk domain of hemagglutinin. Additionally, nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccines encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles have shown substantial breadth and potency in eliciting immune responses in mice. Other strategies, such as the use of computationally optimized broadly reactive antigens and quadrivalent nanoparticle vaccines, have also demonstrated broad protection against multiple influenza strains. The development of universal influenza vaccines holds significant implications for public health. Current seasonal vaccines require frequent updates and may not always match circulating strains, leading to reduced effectiveness. Universal vaccines targeting conserved antigens could provide consistent and broad protection, reducing the need for annual reformulation and improving pandemic preparedness. The ability to induce long-lasting immunity would also alleviate the burden of repeated vaccinations, potentially increasing vaccination coverage and compliance. Moreover, the broad protection offered by these vaccines could mitigate the impact of antigenic drift and shift, thereby reducing morbidity and mortality associated with influenza outbreaks. The future of influenza vaccination lies in the continued development and refinement of universal vaccine candidates. Advances in vaccine technology, such as mRNA and nanoparticle platforms, offer promising avenues for achieving broad and durable protection. Future research should focus on optimizing these platforms for human use, ensuring safety, efficacy, and scalability. Additionally, understanding the mechanisms of immune response and the role of preexisting immunity will be crucial in designing effective universal vaccines. Collaborative efforts between researchers, public health organizations, and policymakers will be essential to bring these vaccines to market and integrate them into existing immunization programs. Ultimately, the goal is to achieve a universal influenza vaccine that provides comprehensive protection against all influenza strains, significantly reducing the global burden of influenza. Acknowledgments Thank you to the peer reviewers for their suggestions on this manuscript. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Arunkumar G., Ioannou A., Wohlbold T., Meade P., Aslam S., Amanat F., Ayllon J., García-Sastre A., and Krammer F., 2019, Broadly Cross-Reactive, Nonneutralizing Antibodies against Influenza B Virus Hemagglutinin Demonstrate Effector Function-Dependent Protection against Lethal Viral Challenge in Mice, Journal of Virology, 93:6. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01696-18 PMid:30626682 PMCid:PMC6401450 Arunkumar G., McMahon M., Pavot V., Aramouni M., Ioannou A., Lambe T., Gilbert S., and Krammer F., 2019, Vaccination with viral vectors expressing NP, M1 and chimeric hemagglutinin induces broad protection against influenza virus challenge in mice. Vaccine, 37: 5567-5577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.095 PMid:31399277 PMCid:PMC6717082
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