International Journal of Molecular Medical Science, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 165-174 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmms 172 Future research should focus on three directions，developing more accurate tools for assessing immune status, conducting large-scale studies involving multiple hospitals on physically weak elderly people, and integrating technologies capable of studying the entire immune system to predict and enhance vaccine responses. Policy support is also crucial. To ensure that everyone has fair access to advanced vaccination methods, to make the approval process smoother, and to address the high costs and ethical issues brought about by personalized vaccines. Global cooperation, strong public health policies, and continuous investment in research and infrastructure are all of great significance in narrowing the gap in immune protection and safeguarding frail and frequently ill elderly people from diseases that can be prevented by vaccines. Acknowledgments We extend our sincere thanks to Mrs Zhang for her feedback on the initial draft of this study. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Reference Abavisani M., Ansari B., Ebadpour N., and Sahebkar A., 2024, How does geographical diversity shape vaccine efficacy?, Clinical and Experimental Vaccine Research, 13: 271-300. https://doi.org/10.7774/cevr.2024.13.4.271 Aiello A., Ligotti M., Garnica M., Accardi G., Calabrò A., Pojero F., Arasanz H., Bocanegra A., Blanco E., Chocarro L., Echaide M., Fernández-Rubio L., Ramos P., Piñeiro-Hermida S., Kochan G., Zareian N., Farzaneh F., Escors D., Caruso C., and Candore G., 2022, How can we improve vaccination response in old people? part I: targeting immunosenescence of innate immunity cells, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(17): 9880. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23179880 Allen J., Toapanta F., Chen W., and Tennant S., 2020, Understanding immunosenescence and its impact on vaccination of older adults, Vaccine, 23(17): 9880.. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.11.002 Bonam S., Partidos C., Halmuthur S., and Muller S., 2017, An overview of novel adjuvants designed for improving vaccine efficacy, Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 38(9): 771-793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2017.06.002 Chan C.X., Yang Y.O., Cheng G.H., Gera S.K., Mohammad A.B., Oh S.J., Lee J.K., and Shin O.S., 2019, Aging and the immune system: the impact of immunosenescence on viral infection immunity and vaccine immunogenicity, Immune Network, 11(4): e37. https://doi.org/10.4110/in.2019.19.e37 Cadar A., Martin D., and Bartley J., 2023, Targeting the hallmarks of aging to improve influenza vaccine responses in older adults, Immunity and Ageing, 20(1): 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12979-023-00348-6 Caldera F., Mercer M., Samson S., Pitt J., and Hayney M., 2020, Influenza vaccination in immunocompromised populations: strategies to improve immunogenicity, Vaccine, 39: A15-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.11.037 Catalán D., Mansilla M., Ferrier A., Soto L., Oleinika K., Aguillón J., and Aravena O., 2021, Immunosuppressive mechanisms of regulatory B cells, Frontiers in Immunology, 12: 611795. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.611795 Chhetri J., 2017, Immunisation of older adults: where are the frail?, The Lancet, Public Health, 2(10): e449. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30155-X Cisneros B., García-Aguirre I., Unzueta J., Arrieta-Cruz I., Gonzalez-Morales O., Domínguez-Larrieta J., Tamez-González A., Leyva-Gómez G., and Magaña J., 2022, Immune system modulation in aging: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets, Frontiers in Immunology, 13: 1059173. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.1059173 Crooke S., Ovsyannikova I., Poland G., and Kennedy R., 2019, Immunosenescence and human vaccine immune responses, Immunity and Ageing, 16(1): 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12979-019-0164-9 Facciolà A., Visalli G., Laganà A., and Di Pietro A., 2022, An overview of vaccine adjuvants: current evidence and future perspectives, Vaccines, 10(5): 819. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10050819 Falahi S., and Kenarkoohi A., 2021, Host factors and vaccine efficacy: Implications for COVID-19 vaccines, Journal of Medical Virology, 94: 1330-1335. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.27485 Frasca D., and Blomberg B., 2020, Aging induces B cell defects and decreased antibody responses to influenza infection and vaccination, Immunity and Ageing, 17(1): 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12979-020-00210-z Frasca D., Díaz A., Romero M., Garcia D., and Blomberg B., 2020, B cell immunosenescence, Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 36: 551-574.
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