International Journal of Molecular Medical Science, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 80-88 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmms 85 In another test, mice that ate a high-fat diet were given another kind of YP called CYP for 14 weeks. Their total cholesterol went down by 25%, and their bad cholesterol (LDL-C) dropped by 40%. Swelling in the body also got better. The amounts of IL-1β and leptin in their blood went down (Cheng et al., 2019). So, YPs might help control both blood sugar and blood fat, which is helpful for people with pre-diabetes or other body health problems. A third study tested three kinds of YPs (HSY-I, HSY-II, HSY-III) in mice with steroid-induced diabetes. The larger molecules-HSY-I (>50 kDa) and HSY-II (10-50 kDa)-worked better. They cut blood sugar by 23% and 18%, showing that bigger YPs may have stronger effects (Li et al., 2017). This also means that the structure of the YPs matters when developing new treatments. 5.2 In vitro studies and cellular mechanisms Lab tests on cells help us see how YPs work inside the body. In one study, liver cells that had trouble reacting to insulin (called HepG2 cells) were given YPs. These cells took in 45% more sugar than those that didn’t get YPs. This happened because YPs turned on the IRS1/PI3K/Akt pathway, which helps insulin work better (Le et al., 2021). YPs also helped move GLUT4 to the cell surface, making it easier for sugar to enter. YPs also fight oxidative stress. In another study, stressed pancreatic β-cells treated with YPs made more antioxidant enzymes like SOD and CAT. These enzymes helped cut harmful molecules (ROS) by 30% and made the cells 20% healthier than untreated ones (Xu et al., 2021). This could help protect the pancreas in people with pre-diabetes. YPs can also help calm inflammation. In a lab test with mouse immune cells, YPs lowered bad signals like TNF-α and IL-6 by over 40% (Li et al., 2017). Since inflammation makes it harder for insulin to work, bringing it down can help with blood sugar, too. 5.3 Human trials and limitations Although animal and cell studies look good, tests in humans are still limited. One small study tested YPs in people with high blood sugar but not full diabetes. After 12 weeks, their fasting blood sugar and insulin resistance got better. But the study had fewer than 30 people and no placebo group, so the results aren’t strong (Zhou et al., 2020). One small human study found that YPs could change gut bacteria in people with pre-diabetes. After taking YPs, they had more good bacteria like Bifidobacteriumand Lactobacillus. This seemed to help their blood sugar and lower inflammation (Chen et al., 2019). But the changes were not big, so more research is needed. There’s also a problem with how YPs are made. Different yam types and different ways of getting YPs out can give very different results. The sugar parts, size, and shape of YPs might change how well they work. So we need better and more steady ways to make and check them. We also don’t clearly know the best amount to use, how much the body can take in, or if they’re safe for long-time use. Bigger and longer tests on people are needed to truly know if YPs can help with pre-diabetes. 6 Potential Application and Challenges 6.1 Development of functional foods and nutraceuticals Yam polysaccharides (YPs) can be used to make food and health products that help with blood sugar problems. They may lower blood sugar, fight harmful molecules, and reduce swelling in the body (Huang et al., 2019). YPs can go into different kinds of products. People can take them as powder, pills, or add them to food. These forms are easy to use every day and may help people stay healthy and control blood sugar (Feng et al., 2022). Other plant sugars, like ones from lotus seeds, also help feed good gut bacteria. This is good for keeping blood sugar steady (Le et al., 2021). YPs might do the same thing. 6.2 Challenges in standardizing YP extraction and dosage One big issue is that YPs don’t always come out the same. How they’re made-like using hot water or alcohol-can change their size and sugar types. This makes it hard to know how well they’ll work (Li et al., 2017). We also
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