International Journal of Molecular Medical Science, 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 274-292 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/ijmms 282 2018). Additionally, DNA methylation profiles have shown substantial prognostic value, often ranking just below mRNA and miRNA expression profiles in terms of performance (Figure 4) (Zhu et al., 2017). Figure 2 (A) Heatmap of significantly up-regulated genes in colon cancer tissue. (B) Forest map of 13 prognostic related genes in colon cancer. Figure 3 The expression level of 21 5mC regulatory factors in normal colon tissue and colon cancer tissue from TCGA database. 5.3.2 Histone modifications Histone modifications, although less frequently studied compared to DNA methylation, also contribute to the epigenetic landscape of colon cancer. These modifications can influence gene expression and have been implicated in the regulation of various oncogenic pathways. Cancer cells exhibit altered histone modification patterns at the single-gene and single-cell mononuclear level (Seligson et al., 2009). Assessments of histone tail modifications and transcriptional analyses during colorectal cancer progression reveal an overall decrease in H3K4me3 activity (Triff et al., 2017).The integration of histone modification data with other omics layers can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the epigenetic changes driving colon cancer. In the SW480 cell line, the states of H3K27me3, H2BK5ac, H2BK15ac, H3K9ac, H3K18ac, and H4K8ac was correlates with the alteration of RGC-32, which can cause cell cycle changes of SW480 cells (Cao et al., 2024). 5.4 Proteomic and metabolomic biomarkers Proteomic and metabolomic analyses have identified several biomarkers that are crucial for the early detection and prognosis of colon cancer. For example, proteins such as PREX1 and RAD50, along with specific miRNAs and oncogenic pathways, have been correlated with antitumor immune signatures in colon cancer (Elsayed et al.,
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