International Journal of Clinical Case Reports 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 230-241 http://medscipublisher.com/index.php/ijccr 234 Furthermore, the development of advanced computational models and predictive tools has enabled researchers to better forecast vaccine efficacy based on immune responses. These models analyze factors such as the heterogeneity of the immune response, the presence of multiple antigen-specific T cell responses, and cytokine profiles to predict which patients are most likely to benefit from vaccination. For example, a computational model developed to assess cancer vaccine trials found that generating immune responses against multiple tumor antigens was strongly associated with better clinical outcomes, highlighting the importance of targeting multiple antigens to enhance vaccine efficacy (Lőrincz et al., 2019). Figure 1 T-cell responses specific for antigens encoded by the transfected mRNA (cohort DCM-2) (Adapted from Kyte et al., 2016) Image caption: T-cell proliferation or INFg ELISPOT after stimulation with tDCs and nDC controls. A T-cell response was considered tDC-specific if the response to tDCs was significantly (p <0.05; ANOVA/SNK) higher than in the controls (TCnDC and T cells only). For all five patients shown, a tDC-specific response was demonstrated in post-vaccination samples (week 6 onwards). In patient M108, a tDC-specific response was observed also prior to vaccination (week 0). The assays in Fig. 1 were performed on T cells pre-stimulated once in vitro with tDCs, except for the assays on follow-up sam- ples from patient M109 (week 14–34), which were performed on freshly thawed T cells. T cell only background counts have been subtracted. Columns, mean cpm (prolif- eration assays) or mean spots/well (ELISPOT). Error bars, SEM (Adapted from Kyte et al., 2016) 4 Safety and Adverse Effects 4.1 Summary of common adverse effects Cancer vaccines, like other immunotherapies, are generally well-tolerated but can be associated with certain adverse effects. Common side effects include injection site reactions, such as redness, swelling, and pain, which are often mild and manageable. Systemic effects, such as fatigue, fever, and mild flu-like symptoms, are also
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