Medicinal Plant Research 2025, Vol.15, No.6, 254-263 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 258 production in inflamatory disease-via suppression of NF-κB and through interference with inflammasome components directly. This reduces the release of the downstream inflammatory cytokines and eventually exerts protective effects against tissue damage (Laurindo et al., 2023). Curcumin modulates the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway at the center of immune cell proliferation, survival, and metabolism. It can suppress mTOR signaling, thereby inhibiting T cell activation and proliferation, and may modulate TLR4 and STAT pathways to achieve broad immunoregulatory effects (Xu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2025). 4.4 Studies in immune-related disease models Preclinical and clinical studies have established that curcumin and extracts of Curcuma longa exert favorable effects on models of autoimmune diseases-such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and ulcerative colitis-allergic diseases, and cancer-by modulating cytokine profiles, the activation of immune cells, and intracellular signaling pathways. There is evidence for improved effectiveness with nanomedicine formulations, as reported by Laurindo et al. (2023) and Haftcheshmeh et al. (2022). 5 In Vitro and In Vivo Research Progress of Curcuma longaand Curcumin 5.1 Invitro anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory experiments In vitro, Curcuma longa and curcumin have been observed to exert considerable anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Various studies illustrate that curcumin suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, while inhibiting the biosynthesis of NO and the activity of iNOS in activated macrophages. All these effects result from the inhibition of major inflammatory pathways, including NF-κB and MAPKs in a variety of immune cell types (Pintatum et al., 2020; Memarzia et al., 2021). 5.2 Cellular-level signaling pathway analyses Cell culture studies have shown that curcumin exerts its mechanisms through the disturbance of several signal transduction pathways involved in the critical regulation of inflammation and immune responses, such as NF-κB, MAPK, JAK/STAT, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR. The suppression of these pathways by curcumin leads to the inhibition of inflammatory mediators and immune cell function (Fuloria et al., 2022). 5.3 Pharmacological effects in animal models In animal models of inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and metabolic disorders, in vivo studies with curcumin or extracts fromCurcuma longa consistently demonstrate a decrease in the infiltration of inflammatory cells, a reduction in levels of cytokines, and the amelioration of symptoms. Such effects were observed in models of arthritis, colitis, diabetes, and wound healing, among others (Makuch et al., 2021; Memarzia et al., 2021). Because of poor bioavailability, new formulation approaches for curcumin, including nanoparticles, liposomes, and micelles, have been developed. These advanced modes of delivery greatly enhance the absorption and therapeutic efficacy of curcumin in both preclinical and clinical settings (Kotha and Luthria, 2019). 5.4 Effects of extraction methods and processing techniques on bioactive content and activity The various methodologies of extraction and processing, including microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and the use of natural deep eutectic solvents, influence both yield and composition related to the bioactive curcuminoids. Indeed, advanced technologies of extraction allow for an increase in the content of curcumin with enhanced bioactivity and enable better pharmacological applications (Singh et al., 2022; Jovanović et al., 2025). 6 Bioavailability and Metabolism of Curcuma longaand Curcumin 6.1 Gastrointestinal absorption, plasma concentration, and metabolic characteristics Poor gastrointestinal absorption, due to the hydrophobic nature of curcumin, coupled with low solubility, leads to minimal plasma concentrations following oral administration. Most absorbed curcumin is extensively metabolized
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