Medicinal Plant Research 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 169-177 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 175 between host immune, metabolic, and signaling pathways and microbial metabolites provides mechanistic insights into the heterogeneity of ginseng's multifaceted health benefits at a basic level. The intimate connection between gut microbiota structure and ginseng response also underscores the necessity for personalized medicine. Variations in microbial diversity, core taxa abundance, and metabolic potential may lead to unprecedented variability in PK profiles and pharmacological activity across individuals. Comprehension of these discrepancies is central to the transition towards precision herbal medicine wherein preparation and dosing of ginseng can be individualized based on the microbial and metabolic pattern of the patient. Such individualized methods could possibly achieve more therapeutic impact with less variation and side effect. Follow-up research would have to involve multi-omics strategies, i.e., metagenomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics, to determine the complex networks interacting between ginseng components, microbial metabolites, and host reactions. Microbiota profiling clinical trials will be required to define microbial biomarkers of predictive ginseng efficacy. Microbiota-directed therapies, i.e., probiotics, prebiotics, or engineered microbial consortia, might enhance ginseng bioactivity and quality in the clinic as well. Lastly, the addition of microbiota-based strategies to traditional pharmacological understanding will aid in developing more efficient, effective, and sustainable applications of ginseng in modern medicine. Acknowledgments The authors sincerely thank the research team for their support and assistance during the conduct of the study and the organization of related materials. The authors also thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions during the review process. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Chen Z., Zhang Z., Liu J., Qi H., Li J., Chen J., Huang Q., Liu Q., Mi J., and Li X., 2022, Gut microbiota: therapeutic targets of ginseng against multiple disorders and ginsenoside transformation, Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12: 853981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.853981 Chetty A., and Blekhman R., 2024, Multi-omic approaches for host-microbiome data integration, Gut Microbes, 16(1): 2297860. https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2023.2297860 Daliri E., Ofosu F., Chelliah R., Lee B., and Oh D., 2021, Challenges and perspective in integrated multi-omics in gut microbiota studies, Biomolecules, 11(2): 300. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11020300 Dong W., Xuan F., Zhong F., Jiang J., Wu S., Li D., and Quan L., 2017, Comparative analysis of the rats' gut microbiota composition in animals with different ginsenosides metabolizing activity, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 65(2): 327-337. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04848 Dong X.J., 2024, Pharmacological effects of aromatic medicinal plants: comprehensive analysis of active ingredients and mechanisms of action, Medicinal Plant Research, 14(1): 11-30. https://doi.org/10.5376/mpr.2024.14.0002 Duan D., Wang M., Han J., Li M., Wang Z., Zhou S., Xin W., and Li X., 2025, Advances in multi-omics integrated analysis methods based on the gut microbiome and their applications, Frontiers in Microbiology, 15: 1509117. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1509117 Hong J., Lee M., Yoon S., Shin S., Bang C., Baik G., Kim D., Youn G., Shin M., Ham Y., Suk K., and Kim B., 2020, Effect of Korean red ginseng on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: an association of gut microbiota with liver function, Journal of Ginseng Research, 45(3): 316-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgr.2020.07.004 Huang J., Liu D., Wang Y., Liu L., Li J., Yuan J., Jiang Z., Jiang Z., Hsiao W., Liu H., Khan I., Xie Y., Wu J., Xie Y., Zhang Y., Fu Y., Liao J., Wang W., Lai H., Shi A., Cai J., Luo L., Li R., Yao X., Fan X., Wu Q., Liu Z., Yan P., Lu J., Yang M., Wang L., Cao Y., Wei H., and Leung E., 2021, Ginseng polysaccharides alter the gut microbiota and kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, potentiating the antitumour effect of anti-programmed cell death 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (anti-PD-1/PD-L1) immunotherapy, Gut, 71(4): 734-745. https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321031 Hyun S., Kim S., Seo H., Youn S., Kyung J., Lee Y., In G., Park C., and Han C., 2020, Physiological and pharmacological features of the non-saponin components in Korean Red Ginseng, Journal of Ginseng Research, 44(4): 527-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgr.2020.01.005
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