Medicinal Plant Research 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 169-177 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 171 the efficiency of ginsenoside conversion and its downstream absorption. Gut microbiota can also modulate the intestinal environment, which can influence the intestinal absorption of ginseng-derived metabolites. Under conditions where there is no action of gut microbiota, metabolic profiles and absorption of ginsenosides are significantly minimized, as in pseudo-germ-free animal models (Chen et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2023). 3.3 Inter-individual differences in gut microbiota and their influence on ginseng metabolism There is significant inter-personal difference in the metabolic status and metabolic activity of gut microbiota, leading to difference in the magnitude and rate of ginsenoside conversion. Individuals with higher amounts of certain bacteria like Bifidobacterium animalis have higher capacities to convert ginsenosides to active forms like compound K. This heterogeneity results in pharmacokinetic profiles and therapeutic activity of ginseng that is heterogeneous in individuals, requiring individualized approaches towards the use of ginseng supplements (Dong et al., 2017; Seong et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022) (Figure 1). Figure 1 The metabolism of ginsenosides under the action of gut microbiota (Adopted from Chen et al., 2022)
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