Medicinal Plant Research 2025, Vol.15, No.1, 32-39 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 34 2.2 Functions and mechanisms of other active components Other than saponins, Sapindus fruits also contain other bioactive components such as acyclic sesquiterpene oligoglycosides and flavonoids. They are the reason for the medicinal properties of the plant, such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Antioxidant activity is largely attributed to the occurrence of polyphenolic compounds which have been found to positively correlate with reduction potential and lipid peroxidation inhibition. Flavonoids and sesquiterpene glycosides are also accountable for the antimicrobial activity of the plant, particularly against dermatophytes (Li et al., 2013). 2.3 Inhibitory effects of active components on pests and pathogens The bioactive phytochemicals of Sapindus fruits, especially saponins, have exhibited encouraging inhibitory activities against various pests and pathogens. For instance, the saponins from Sapindus mukorossi prevented Venturia inaequalis symptoms and sporulation by 99% under greenhouse conditions and reduced the severity of Botrytis cinerea by 63% under field testing (Heng et al., 2014). These findings suggest that Sapindus saponins can be effectively utilized in biopesticide formulations to control fungal pathogens. Additionally, the molluscicidal activity of Sapindus rarak saponins also proves their suitability for pest control (Xu et al., 2021). 3 Extraction Process of Active Components inSapindus Fruit 3.1 Extraction methods and optimization Active ingredients extraction fromSapindus fruits primarily involves the use of solvents and various forms of extraction. Water extraction was also employed, which yielded a good amount of saponins with a purity of 61.38% when carried out for 4 hours under a material-to-liquid ratio of 1:6. Also, foam fractionation has been used in an attempt to purify saponins at a high level of purity of 90.3%. Maximizing these processes involves the control of variables such as solvent concentration, extraction time, and liquid-to-material ratio to realize high yield and purity (Liu et al., 2019). 3.2 Influence of extraction conditions on efficiency of active components The success of recovery of active ingredients fromSapindus fruits relies on several conditions. For instance, the choice of solvent and extraction time can significantly affect the yield and quality of saponins. Water extraction for 4 hours is effective but further purification through fermentation can increase the purity to 78.97%. The use of high temperature and some internal components of foam fractionation can also enhance the saponin recovery rate and enrichment ratio (Dinda et al., 2017). 3.3 Purification and separation techniques for active components Purification and separation of active constituents fromSapindus fruits are necessary in order to obtain high-purity saponins. Techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and foam fractionation are used most frequently. HPLC allows for fractionation and identification of specific saponins, e.g., sapindoside B and hederagenin-pentosylhexoside. Foam fractionation, a two-step technique, was effective in achieving a high purity of saponins with an enrichment ratio of 133.4 (Cahyana et al., 2020). 3.4 Cost-effectiveness analysis of extraction processes Economic feasibility of Sapindus fruit extraction methods relies on the balance between yield, purity, and operating costs. Water-based extraction is fairly cost-effective due to its simplicity and the fact that water is a readily available solvent, but it may be susceptible to requiring additional purification steps like fermentation to ensure very high purity levels (Hu et al., 2021). Foam fractionation, while more costly due to the need for specialized conditions and equipment, is of high recovery and purity, which in itself could be sufficient justification for use in industrial applications. For bulk production, usually the extraction and purification methods applied should find a balance between the desired purity and cost viability (Pore et al., 2010). 4 Application Research of Active Components in Biopesticides 4.1 Toxicological mechanisms of Sapindus fruit active components on target pests The bioactive compounds of Sapindus fruits, particularly trypsin inhibitors, have shown potential in controlling pest populations. The purified Sapindus mukorossi seed trypsin inhibitor acts as a non-competitive inhibitor towards the gut peptidases of Bactrocera cucurbitae, a severe pest of a number of crops. This inhibitor disrupts
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