Medicinal Plant Research 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 210-222 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 218 6 Safety and Toxicity 6.1 Allergens and mycotoxins Kiwifruit is known to contain several potential allergens that can trigger adverse reactions in sensitive individuals. Thirteen different allergens have been identified in green kiwifruit, with Act d 1, Act d 2, Act d 8, Act d 11, and Act d 12 being the major allergens. These allergens can cause symptoms ranging from oral allergy syndrome (OAS) to severe anaphylaxis. Act d 1 and Act d 2 are particularly notable as they are ripening-related allergens found in abundance in fully ripe kiwifruit. The allergenic potential of these proteins can be influenced by food processing methods, such as thermal, ultrasound, and chemical treatments, which may reduce their allergenicity (Wang et al., 2019). Mycotoxins, toxic compounds produced by fungi, are another concern in kiwifruit safety. Although specific data on mycotoxins in kiwifruit is limited, the presence of these toxins in other fruits suggests a potential risk. Effective management strategies include regular monitoring and implementing good agricultural practices to minimize fungal contamination and mycotoxin production. 6.2 Pesticides and heavy metals The presence of pesticides and heavy metals in kiwifruit is a significant safety concern. Studies have shown that pesticides like forchlorfenuron (CPPU) and thidiazuron (TDZ) are commonly used in kiwifruit cultivation to enhance fruit growth. While these pesticides can improve the sensory quality and nutritional content of kiwifruit, they can also reduce antioxidant values and vitamin C content in certain varieties (Shan et al., 2021). Additionally, the residue levels of pesticides such as hexaconazole can be significantly reduced through processing methods like peeling, homogenization, and sterilization, which help decrease dietary risks (Wang et al., 2023). Heavy metals, including chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb), have been detected in kiwifruit orchard soils and tissues. Although the overall health risk from consuming kiwifruit under current consumption rates is low, a significant percentage of fruit samples have been found to exceed national maximum permissible levels for these metals. Regular monitoring and strict management programs are essential to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, thereby minimizing heavy metal contamination (Guo et al., 2016). 6.3 Safe consumption levels Determining safe consumption levels of kiwifruit is crucial to avoid potential adverse effects. While kiwifruit is rich in beneficial nutrients and bioactive compounds, excessive intake can lead to side effects, particularly in individuals with allergies or sensitivities. Current studies suggest that moderate consumption of kiwifruit is generally safe and beneficial for health. However, specific recommendations for daily intake and potential side effects are still under investigation. It is advisable for individuals, especially those with known allergies, to consult healthcare professionals for personalized dietary advice (Wang et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020). 7 Applications in Food and Medicine 7.1 Functional foods Kiwifruit has shown significant potential as a functional food ingredient due to its rich composition of dietary nutrients, polyphenols, vitamins, dietary fiber, and bioactive phytochemicals. These components contribute to its antioxidative, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antihypercholesterolemic, neuroprotective, and anti-obesity properties, as well as its ability to promote gut health (Wang et al., 2020). The food industry can leverage these health benefits by incorporating kiwifruit into various products, thereby enhancing their nutritional value and offering consumers functional foods that support overall health and well-being. 7.2 Pharmaceutical uses Kiwifruit oil, particularly from the seeds, has been identified as a valuable component in pharmaceutical formulations. It contains a high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids, such as linolenic acid, and exhibits potent antioxidant properties (Deng et al., 2018). The oil has demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on enzymes linked to metabolic illnesses, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carbonic anhydrase II (CA II), and
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