Medicinal Plant Research 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 162-170 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 164 The anti-inflammatory action of Hydrocotyle vulgaris is primarily mediated through the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the modulation of immune cell activity. Studies have shown that plant extracts can reduce the production of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8, which are critical mediators of inflammation (Santis et al., 2019; Soleymani et al., 2019; Pandur et al., 2022). Additionally, the activation of antioxidant enzymes like catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) further contributes to its anti-inflammatory effects by reducing oxidative stress in immune cells (Pandur et al., 2022). 3.2 Antimicrobial and antiviral activities Hydrocotyle vulgaris exhibits a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities against various bacterial and fungal pathogens. The plant's essential oils and extracts have been shown to possess significant antibacterial properties, particularly against resistant strains such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Patil et al., 2021; Pandur et al., 2022). The antimicrobial efficacy is attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds like thymol and other phenolic compounds, which disrupt microbial cell membranes and inhibit their growth (Pandur et al., 2022). The antiviral properties of Hydrocotyle vulgaris are also noteworthy. Compounds such as hydroxytyrosol have demonstrated antiviral activity against viruses like HIV-1 and Herpes simplex virus by interfering with viral replication and enhancing the host's immune response (Bertelli et al., 2019; Patil et al., 2021). These findings suggest that Hydrocotyle vulgaris could be a valuable resource for developing antiviral therapies. 3.3 Neuroprotective and cardiovascular benefits The neuroprotective effects of Hydrocotyle vulgaris are primarily due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. By reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, the plant's compounds help protect neuronal cells from damage. For example, hydroxytyrosol has been shown to improve endothelial function and decrease oxidative stress, which are critical factors in neuroprotection (Bertelli et al., 2019). Additionally, the modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancement of antioxidant enzyme activities contribute to its neuroprotective mechanisms (Santis et al., 2019; Pandur et al., 2022). Hydrocotyle vulgaris also offers significant cardioprotective benefits. The plant's bioactive compounds help improve cardiovascular health by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, which are key contributors to cardiovascular diseases. Studies have shown that hydroxytyrosol and other phenolic compounds can improve endothelial dysfunction and provide protection against heart diseases (Bertelli et al., 2019). The anti-inflammatory properties further support cardiovascular health by reducing the risk of atherosclerosis and other inflammatory conditions (Patil et al., 2021; Pandur et al., 2022). 4 Mechanisms of Action 4.1 Cellular and molecular mechanisms Hydrocotyle vulgaris, like many other medicinal plants, exerts its therapeutic effects through the modulation of various signaling pathways. Key pathways include the PI3K/AKT pathway, which is crucial for cell survival and proliferation, and the NF-κB pathway, which plays a significant role in inflammation and immune responses. Phytochemicals from plants have been shown to modulate these pathways effectively, thereby controlling macrophage biology and influencing the balance between pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophage phenotypes. The regulation of gene expression by phytochemicals involves epigenetic modifications such as histone modification, DNA methylation, and miRNA-mediated post-transcriptional changes. These modifications can either induce or suppress inflammatory signaling, thereby maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing chronic inflammation. Phytochemicals have been identified to target these epigenetic mechanisms, thereby attenuating aberrant inflammation and potentially reducing the risk of inflammation-mediated diseases (Ahmed et al., 2022). Phytochemicals also impact cellular metabolism by modulating oxidative stress and enhancing antioxidant defenses. They achieve this by down-regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and up-regulating antioxidant
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