Medicinal Plant Research 2024, Vol.14, No.1, 11-30 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 22 Economically, clove is a valuable commodity in the global spice market (Xue et al., 2022). It is extensively used in culinary applications, particularly in Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cuisines. Clove oil, extracted from the buds, leaves, and stems, is used in pharmaceuticals, dentistry, and aromatherapy. Culturally, clove has been associated with its strong aroma and flavor, symbolizing warmth and festivity in various traditions. Its use in traditional medicine underscores its cultural significance in promoting health and well-being. 8.2 Active ingredients inSyzygium aromaticum The primary active compound in clove is eugenol, which constitutes up to 85% of clove oil. Eugenol is known for its analgesic, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory properties (Beltrán-Villalobos et al., 2017; Xue et al., 2022). Other significant compounds include isoeugenol, eugenol acetate, β-caryophyllene, and α-humulene. These compounds contribute to the broad pharmacological profile of clove, enhancing its therapeutic applications. Clove oil is typically extracted through steam distillation, which effectively isolates the essential oils from the plant material (Pires et al., 2019). Identification and quantification of the active compounds are performed using techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), coupled with mass spectrometry (MS). Rakhmawati et al. (2022) conducted a chemical analysis of locally produced clove bud oil using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), identifying 10 major components, including eugenol, trans-caryophyllene, and eugenyl acetate. They also confirmed that the oil met the SNI standards. In another study, total eugenol, eugenol acetate and β-stigmasterol were accurately quantified in clove oil using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques (Tarhan, 2021). The results showed that these techniques can be used for accurate and simultaneous quantification of major compounds in clove oil. 8.3 Pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Syzygium aromaticum Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities, including antibacterial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects (Chniguir et al., 2019; Déciga-Campos et al., 2021; Teles et al., 2021; Benmakhlouf et al., 2022). These properties make it effective in treating infections, pain, inflammation, and oxidative stress-related conditions. Teles et al. (2021) analyzed the chemical composition of clove ( Syzygium aromaticum) essential oil and its antibacterial, antioxidant, and anti-trypanosomal activities. The study found that the main component of clove essential oil is eugenol (53.23%), which showed a stronger inhibitory effect against Staphylococcus aureus with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 50 µg/mL. The essential oil also demonstrated significant antioxidant activity and inhibitory effects on Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, with low selective toxicity to cells, indicating its potential as a novel alternative therapy for Chagas disease (Figure 2). The essential oil and extracts of clove exhibited remarkable antimicrobial properties against various bacterial and fungal strains, making it a potential candidate for treating infections. Chniguir et al. (2019) reported that the aqueous extract of Syzygium aromaticum (SAAE) exhibits significant anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9). The study showed that SAAE effectively inhibits the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by neutrophils in vitro and alleviates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation in mice in vivo. It reduces the protein concentration and total cell count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. These findings suggest that SAAE has potential value in the development of anti-inflammatory drugs. The study analyzed the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the combination of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) and Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) when applied locally in rats (Déciga-Campos et al., 2021). The results showed that both herbs exhibited significant concentration-dependent analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects when used individually. Through isobolographic analysis (Figure 3), it was determined that a 1:1 combination of the two herbs resulted in synergistic effects, with the actual efficacy of the combination being significantly higher than the theoretical value. This suggests that herbal combinations used in traditional medicine
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