Medicinal Plant Research 2024, Vol.14, No.1, 11-30 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/mpr 15 reduction, hydrolysis, and conjugation. Essential oils are primarily metabolized in the liver, where they are converted into more water-soluble forms for excretion (Čabarkapa et al., 2020). Polyphenolics, on the other hand, are metabolized by gut microbiota, which can influence their bioactivity and health benefits (Tasneem et al., 2019). Several factors affect the bioavailability of active compounds from aromatic medicinal plants. Delivery methods, such as encapsulation and nanoemulsion, can enhance the stability and absorption of these compounds (Čabarkapa et al., 2020). Interactions with other dietary components and individual variations in metabolism also play a significant role in determining the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of these compounds (Tasneem et al., 2019; Álvarez-Martínez et al., 2021). Certain flavonoids can inhibit the activity of metabolizing enzymes, thereby enhancing the bioavailability of co-administered compounds. 4 Pharmacological Effects 4.1 Anti-inflammatory effects Several studies have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory properties of aromatic medicinal plants. For instance, curcumin from Curcuma longa have shown significant anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory actions, including inhibitory effects on cellular and humoral immunity, lymphocyte activation, and apoptosis propagation (Tasneem et al., 2019). essential oils from plants such as Chinese mint (Mentha haplocalyx), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) have shown significant anti-inflammatory effects in various in vitro and in vivo models. These studies often involve assays that measure the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6, as well as the suppression of inflammatory mediators like nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandins (Park et al., 2022). Furthermore, essential oils fromThymus algeriensis and Artemisia herba-alba have demonstrated substantial anti-inflammatory activity in vivo(Ouahdani et al., 2021). The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of these plants involve multiple pathways, such as curcumin, menthol, eugenol, and 1,8-cineole exert their effects by modulating key signaling pathways involved in inflammation. Curcumin modulate inflammation by affecting signal transduction networks, transcription factors, and the complement system (Tasneem et al., 2019). Park et al. (2022) alleviated neuroinflammation by modulating the CREB/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, particularly under conditions induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The experimental results showed that menthol (MH) extract inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory enzymes and mediators (such as nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6) and reduced the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Additionally, MH inhibited the NF-κB pathway, which plays a crucial role in regulating inflammatory responses (Figure 1). Eugenol has been shown to suppress the expression of COX-2, an enzyme responsible for the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Additionally, 1,8-cineole modulates the MAPK pathway, leading to a reduction in the production of inflammatory cytokines (Park et al., 2022). The essential oils from Thymus algeriensis and Artemisia herba-alba inhibit edema development induced by carrageenan, indicating their role in modulating inflammatory responses (Ouahdani et al., 2021). The anti-inflammatory properties of these plants suggest their potential use in treating chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. For example, the combination of Syzygium aromaticum and Rosmarinus officinalis has shown synergistic anti-inflammatory effects, which could be beneficial in pain management and inflammation-related conditions (Déciga-Campos et al., 2021). These findings support the integration of these plants into therapeutic strategies for managing inflammation. 4.2 Antimicrobial and antiviral effects Aromatic medicinal plants have also been shown to possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties. Essential oils from Syzygium aromaticum and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) have shown broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these oils against pathogenic microorganisms, including antibiotic-resistant strains such as MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and various strains of influenza viruses (García-Oliveira et al., 2022). Additionally, Piper species have demonstrated strong antibacterial and antifungal activities against human pathogens (Salehi et al., 2019).
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