International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.5, 257-266 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 264 Education emerged as another important factor influencing household adaptation responses. It was positively correlated with climate change awareness, suggesting that educated individuals are more capable of perceiving and interpreting environmental changes. Conversely, education was negatively related to migration, implying that better-educated households may diversify their livelihoods locally, adopt adaptation measures, or engage in off-farm income generation instead of relying on migration. This is in line with Regmi and Bhandari (2013), who argued that education enhances adaptive capacity by improving knowledge access, decision-making, and resilience to climate stress. Household size was positively associated with dependence on medicinal plant collection. Larger households not only have greater consumption needs but also possess more labor to engage in harvesting activities. This supports the findings of Ghimire et al. (2005), who showed that household size directly influenced the scale of medicinal plant harvesting in Himalayan communities, often leading to increased pressure on natural resources. The findings collectively point to a feedback loop in which climate change reduces the availability of medicinal plants, undermining household income and prompting migration. Education acts as a moderating factor by enhancing adaptive capacity, while a larger household size amplifies dependence on resource extraction. This dynamic mirrors the broader vulnerability framework described by Gentle and Maraseni (2012), where climate-induced livelihood insecurity exacerbates migration as a coping mechanism. Thus, the study highlights not only the ecological impacts of climate change on medicinal plant resources but also their socioeconomic consequences for mountain households. This dual effect underscores the urgent need for integrated adaptation strategies that combine biodiversity conservation with livelihood diversification, ensuring that vulnerable households are not forced into migration due to resource scarcity. 4.2 Policy implications The results highlight several actionable policy directions. First, since climate awareness is strongly linked with perceptions of resource scarcity, community-based biodiversity monitoring should be integrated into local adaptation programs to validate perceptions with ecological data. Second, the negative association between medicinal plant income and migration suggests that strengthening the medicinal plant value chain—through improved storage, certification, and equitable market linkages—can reduce household vulnerability. Third, given the widespread adoption of greenhouses and topworking in the district, policies should prioritize targeted technical support, including subsidies for greenhouse construction and training in pest and disease management, to maximize benefits. Finally, investment in rural education and vocational training is crucial, as education not only improves awareness but also reduces dependence on migration by enabling households to diversify locally. 4.3 Limitations and future recommendations This study, while providing valuable insights into the perceptions and adaptation strategies of rural households facing climate change in Jumla District, is subject to several limitations. The relatively small sample size (n=56) and purposive sampling approach may not fully capture the diversity of experiences and responses across the entire district, potentially limiting the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data introduces the possibility of recall bias and subjective interpretation, especially regarding climate trends and agricultural changes. For future research, it is recommended to expand the sample size and include a broader range of wards and socio-economic groups to enhance representativeness. Incorporating longitudinal data collection and integrating objective meteorological and agricultural yield records would strengthen the validity of the findings. Furthermore, future studies should explore gender-specific impacts, youth perspectives, and the effectiveness of specific adaptation interventions, as well as policy-level barriers and opportunities for scaling up successful local innovations. 5 Conclusion This study highlights the significant ecological and socioeconomic impacts of climate change on rural households in Jumla District. All respondents (100%) reported rising temperatures and erratic rainfall, while 92.8% observed reduced snowfall, leading to major disruptions in crop calendars and declining yields. Apple, the district’s primary
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