International Journal of Horticulture 2025, Vol.15, No.4 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
International Journal of Horticulture 2025, Vol.15, No.4 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher HortHerb Publisher Edited by Editorial Team of International Journal of Horticulture Email: edit@ijh.hortherbpublisher.com Website: http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada International Journal of Horticulture (ISSN 1927-5803) is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by HortHerb Publisher. The journal publishes all the latest and outstanding research articles, letters and reviews in all aspects of horticultural and its relative science, containing horticultural products, protection; agronomic, entomology, plant pathology, plant nutrition, breeding, post harvest physiology, and biotechnology, are also welcomed; as well as including the tropical fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and industrial crops grown in the open and under protection. HortHerb Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in horticulture, herbal sciences, and tea-related research registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada. All the articles published in International Journal of Horticulture are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. HortHerb Publisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights.
International Journal of Horticulture (online), 2025, Vol. 15, No.4 ISSN 1927-5803 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Effect of Different Growing Media on Growth and Germination Parameters of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum) Seed in Bhojpur, Nepal Prabin Sapkota, Jibisha Poudel, Sakshi Mandal, Arzu Chaudhary, Abhishek Baniya, Megha Upadhyay, Shafat Rukhsar, Abhishek Chaudhary, Lokesh Pokharel, Rupesh Kumar Mehta1, Chetana Roy International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 143-161 Genetic Regulation of Nocturnal Flowering in Pitaya Floral Morphology, Olfactory Cues, and Pollination Adaptation Wenzhong Huang, Zhonggang Li International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 162-170 Research Progress on the Botanical Characteristics and Diversity of Cannabis Shanyu Chen, Wenjun Wang, Sijie Meng, Guanhai Ruan International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 171-184 Molecular Regulation of Durian Fruit Aroma: Genetic Network of Sulfur-Containing Volatile Biosynthesis Chuchu Liu, Zhonggang Li International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 185-194 Effect of Different Nutrient Media on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) Production in Kailali, Nepal Tara Chandra Joshi , Namrata Acharya, Hari Prasad Ghimire, Rejina Sapkota, Suwas Dahal International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 195-200 Assessing the Impact of Educational Levels and Agricultural Practices on Apple Production in Jumla District: A Comparative Study of Farmer Knowledge, Tree Age, and Varietal Diversification Prakash Dhungana , Bibek Sharma, Sudarsan Panta, Padam Bhusal, Rohit Sah International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 4, 201-207
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 143 Research Article Open Access Effect of Different Growing Media on Growth and Germination Parameters of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum) Seed in Bhojpur, Nepal Prabin Sapkota 1, Jibisha Poudel 1, Sakshi Mandal 1, Arzu Chaudhary 1, Abhishek Baniya 2, Megha Upadhyay 2, Shafat Rukhsar 1, Abhishek Chaudhary3, Lokesh Pokharel 1, Rupesh Kumar Mehta1 , Chetana Roy1 1 Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Horticulture, G. P. Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Center, Gothgaun, Morang, 56600, Nepal 2 Department of Agriculture, College of Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, Kapilakot, Sindhuli, 45912, Nepal 3 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Institute of Science and Technology, College of Agricultural Sciences, SRMIST, Chennai, 603201, India Corresponding email: entersgz1907@gmail.com International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4 doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0016 Received: 31 Mar., 2025 Accepted: 22 Jun., 2025 Published: 29 Jul., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Sapkota et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Sapkota P., Poudel J., Mandal S., Chaudhary A., Baniya A., Upadhyay M., Rukhsar S., Chaudhary A., Pokharel L., Mehta R.K., and Roy C., 2025, Effect of different growing media on growth and germination parameters of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) seed in Bhojpur, Nepal, International Journal of Horticulture, 15(4): 143-161 (doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0016) Abstract Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), particularly the California Wonder variety, is a high-value vegetable crop in Nepal, contributing significantly to farmers' livelihoods and food security. However, optimizing nursery practices remains a challenge, as seedling growth and establishment are highly influenced by the choice of growing media. Selecting an appropriate medium can enhance seedling vigor, leading to improved crop productivity and economic returns. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of different growing media on the germination and growth parameters of bell pepper seedlings in Bhojpur, Nepal, during the spring season (May-June 2023). The experiment followed a two-factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with two levels of treatment combinations. Seeds of California Wonder and Sagar varieties were procured from local agro-vets and sown in seed trays using different growth media: Soil, Soil + Cocopeat (1:1), Soil + Farmyard Manure (FYM) (3:1), Soil + Vermicompost (1:1), and Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost (1:1:1:1). The results demonstrated a significant influence of the growing medium on key germination and growth parameters. The highest germination percentage (90.83%) and germination rate index (67.70) were recorded in Soil + Vermicompost (1:1), whereas the Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost (1:1:1:1) medium yielded the highest values for seedling vigor index (950.05), number of leaves (5.13), seedling length (6.91 cm), stem diameter (0.28 cm), fresh weight (1.13 g), dry weight (0.12 g), root length (5.70 cm), and leaf area (9.75 cm²). Among the tested varieties, California Wonder performed best in most growth parameters, except germination percentage and germination rate index. Optimizing its nursery conditions with sustainable growing media can enhance seedling establishment and boost bell pepper production in Nepal. Keywords Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum); Growth media; Capsicum; Seed germination; Seedling growth 1 Introduction Bell pepper (Capsicum annuumL.), belonging to the Solanaceae family, is a widely cultivated and economically significant vegetable crop in Nepal (Vivek et al., 2017; Rekha et al., 2018). Commonly known as sweet pepper or Shimla mirch, it is valued for its rich nutritional profile, vibrant color, and versatility in culinary uses. Although it is a perennial plant, it is usually grown as an annual crop due to climatic suitability. The crop thrives in tropical to sub-temperate conditions, and is adaptable to elevations up to 2,000 meters, making it suitable for diverse agro-climatic zones of Nepal. Bhojpur district, a notable vegetable production area, has emerged as a key site for capsicum cultivation, covering approximately 482 hectares with an average yield of 1,817 metric tons per hectare (MoALD, 2023). The crop prefers fertile, humus-rich, well-drained soil with a pH between 5.5 and 5.6, and optimalgrowthoccursbetween21 °Cand25 °C.Temperaturesaboveorbelowthisrangecannegativelyaffect germination and fruit development (Demir et al., 2010). Despite its importance, bell pepper cultivation in Nepal faces several constraints such as low germination rates, poor seedling vigor, pest and disease incidence, and inadequate nursery management (Agarwal et al., 2007). Among these, low seed germination and weak seedling vigor remain primary bottlenecks affecting overall productivity. Seedling performance is influenced by seed quality, environmental conditions, and especially by the
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 144 growing media used (Sabatino, 2020). The selection of appropriate growing media is critical for improving seed germination, seedling uniformity, and transplant quality. An ideal medium should offer a balanced structure for anchorage, aeration, moisture retention, and nutrient availability (Khanal et al., 2024). Several studies have evaluated various growing media combinations to enhance the early-stage growth of vegetable crops. For instance, Abad et al. (2002) and Sabatino (2020) emphasized the physical and chemical characteristics of substrates—such as coco peat, vermicompost, peat moss, perlite, and FYM-in determining seedling performance. However, much of the global research has focused on standardized conditions in controlled environments, and findings may not always translate effectively to Nepal’s unique agro-ecological settings. While Bhusal et al. (2023) and Khanal et al. (2024) have recently studied substrate effects in the Nepalese context, their findings are geographically limited and do not specifically address bell pepper under portray-based systems in high-altitude regions like Bhojpur. Moreover, comparative evaluations of commonly accessible local substrates in terms of their influence on germination rate, shoot length, root vigor, and seedling quality remain insufficiently explored. However, traditional transplanting methods still dominate in many parts of Nepal, primarily due to high initial investment costs and limited awareness among farmers (Bosland et al., 2012). These methods are often linked to lower productivity, inferior seedling quality, and increased production costs (Bhusal et al., 2023). In addition, unpredictable environmental conditions frequently disrupt timely seedling production, resulting in inconsistent cropping cycles (Khanal et al., 2024). To address these challenges, portray-based seedling production systems have emerged as a viable alternative. This technique enables the timely and uniform production of healthy seedlings, reduces input costs, and improves seedling vigor (Behera, 2016). It is particularly effective in regions where traditional nursery beds are vulnerable to climate-induced stresses. A critical determinant of success in portray-based nurseries is the choice of growing media (Agarwal et al., 2007). Various soil-based and soilless substrates—such as soil, sand, coco peat, peat moss, farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost, rice husk, perlite, and vermiculite—have been studied for their effectiveness in improving germination and early growth (Bhusal et al., 2023; Khanal et al., 2024). Each medium possesses distinct physical and chemical properties that influence water retention, nutrient availability, aeration, and microbial activity (Abad et al., 2002). The integration of modern nursery practices with optimal growing media has demonstrated improvements in germination rates, reduction in seedling mortality, and enhanced early vigor (Bhusal et al., 2023). In areas like Bhojpur, where vegetable cultivation underpins local livelihoods, adopting improved nursery techniques such as portray-based seedling production with context-specific growing media can play a transformative role in sustainable agricultural development (Agarwal et al., 2007; Khanal et al., 2024). Given the importance of growing media in determining the success of bell pepper cultivation, this study aims to evaluate the effects of different growing media on seed germination and seedling traits. The findings of this research will provide valuable insights into the selection of optimal growing media for capsicum seedling production in Bhojpur, Nepal. By identifying the most effective growing media, this study seeks to enhance seedling quality, improve transplanting success rates, and ultimately boost capsicum productivity in the region. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Experimental site and geographical location The experiment was conducted from January to June 2023 at the research facility of the Agricultural Knowledge Center (AKC), Dandagaun, Bhojpur Municipality-7, Bhojpur. The study site is geographically positioned at 27°10'0" North latitude and 87°03'0" East longitude, with an elevation of 1,560 meters above sea level. Bhojpur district, located in Koshi Zone within Province No. 1 of Nepal, lies in the mid-hills of Eastern Nepal and provides a diverse agro-climatic environment suitable for vegetable cultivation. During the experimental period, the study area experienced significant climatic variations. The mean temperature ranged from a minimum of 12 °C to a maximum of 28 °C, with considerable daily and weekly fluctuations. The relative humidity varied between 65% and 95%, indicating a generally humid
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 145 environment conducive to seed germination and seedling growth. Precipitation levels ranged from 10 mm to 120 mm per week, affecting soil moisture availability and seedling development. To further analyze the environmental conditions of the experimental site, a geographical representation of the study area was prepared using GIS tools (Figure 1). Figure 1 Administrative map of Bhojpur district showing research site 2.2 Experimental setup and treatments details The experiment was conducted inside a plastic tunnel at Bhojpur, Nepal, to evaluate the influence of different growing media on the seedling performance of two bell pepper varieties. The soil used in the experiment was loamy in texture, classified as loam, with a moderately acidic pH of 5.9. A 2 × 5 factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD) was adopted, involving two factors: Factor A (variety) with two levels—Sagar Hybrid F1 and California Wonder F1—and Factor B (growing media) with five levels—control (soil only), soil + coco peat, soil + farmyard manure (FYM), soil + vermicompost, and soil + coco peat+FYM + vermicompost (Figure 2). Figure 2 Experimental design with variety and growing media Each treatment was replicated three times, resulting in a total of 30 experimental units. To enhance germination, the seeds were soaked in clean water for 12 hours prior to sowing. Sowing was performed using plastic portray trays, commonly used by local farmers, with each tray consisting of 50 cells (10 × 5 configuration). Two treatments were assigned per tray, with each treatment occupying 25 cells, and a single seed was sown per cell.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 146 The cells were filled halfway with the respective growing media, followed by seed placement, and then covered with the remaining media. Each treatment unit received 20 seeds, and five seedlings were randomly selected from each for observation. The trays were arranged randomly inside the plastic tunnel as per the CRD layout. Light irrigation was applied based on the moisture condition of the growing media to ensure proper germination and uniform seedling development throughout the experimental period. 2.3 Observation and data collection Throughout the experiment, various germination and growth parameters were systematically recorded. Germination was monitored daily for seven days following showing to assess germination characteristics and trends. The number of germinated seeds was counted continuously during this period to evaluate germination performance. For growth analysis, five seedlings were randomly selected from each replication at 12, 18, 24, and 30 days after sowing (DAS). These selected seedlings were carefully uprooted and examined to measure key growth parameters. This approach enabled a detailed assessment of seedling development over time, providing valuable insights into their growth dynamics under different growing media conditions. 2.4 Germination parameters This study aimed to evaluate essential germination parameters, including germination percentage, germination energy, germination speed, vigor index, and the germination rate index. Germination percentage represents the proportion of seeds that successfully sprout under optimal conditions, serving as an indicator of seed viability. Germination energy measures the percentage of seeds that germinate within a specific period, providing insight into seedling uniformity and early vigor. Germination speed reflects the rate at which seeds emerge over time, emphasizing differences in efficiency. The vigor index integrates various seed traits that influence seedling development, making it a critical measure of seedling strength. Meanwhile, the germination rate index offers a cumulative assessment of germination speed by considering the number of seeds germinated at different time points. These parameters were determined using the formulas established by Mehata et al. (2023), ensuring a methodical and comprehensive analysis of seed germination behavior. This systematic approach enabled a thorough examination of seed performance across treatments, enhancing the understanding of seedling establishment and initial growth. (1) 퐺푒푟푚푖� 푖 � 푃푒푟푐푒� 푒 퐺% =푁푄 푢푢 푚 � 푒푖 푟 푠 푠푒 푒푒 푒 푠 푠푝 푙 ℎ � 푒푠 푝 푟푖 � 푢 푒 푙 × 100 (2) 퐺푒푟푚푖� 푖 � 푆푝푒푒 퐺푆 = 퐶 푢� 푠푒푒 푠 ℎ 푠푝푟 푢 푒 푤푖 ℎ푖� 72ℎ 푢푟푠 푄푢 � 푖 푠푒푒 푠 ℎ 푠푝푟 푢 푒 푤푖 ℎ푖�168ℎ 푢푟푠×100 (3) 퐺푒푟푚푖� 푖 � 퐸�푒푟 퐺퐸 =푝푟 푝 푟 푖 � 푠푒푒 푠 ℎ 푠푝푟 푢 푒 푤푖 ℎ푖� 72ℎ 푢푟푠 (4) 푆푒푒 푉푖 푟 퐼� 푒 푉퐼 =퐺푒푟푚푖� 푖 � 푝푒푟푐푒� 푒 %× 푆푒푒 푙푖� 푙푒� ℎ (푐푚) 2.5 Vegetative growth metrics The evaluation of capsicum seedling growth parameters involved precise measurements of root and shoot lengths using a graduated scale. At 25, 30, 35, and 40 days after sowing (DAS), five randomly selected seedlings were carefully uprooted, and their root and shoot lengths were recorded. Additionally, an electronic weighing machine was employed to determine the fresh weight of these seedlings. To assess dry weight, a separate set of five seedlings was subjected to an air-drying process. This integrative methodology facilitated a comprehensive analysis of capsicum seedling development, capturing both morphological dimensions and biomass accumulation across distinct growth stages. 2.6 Statistical analysis The collected raw data was systematically arranged in chronological sequence for both treatment and replication blocks using MS Excel 2021 (Microsoft Corporation, Washington, USA). Subsequent statistical analysis was performed in R Studio (Version 4.2.2, Boston, Massachusetts, USA) by conducting ANOVA. Mean comparisons among different treatments were carried out using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% significance level. Furthermore, R Studio facilitated an in-depth examination of interactive effects between treatments and
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 147 varieties, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of treatment-specific responses across different genetic backgrounds. 3 Results and Analysis 3.1 Effect of different treatments on germination parameters of capsicum varieties Significant variation was observed among treatments and varieties for germination percentage at early stages, particularly at 12 days after sowing (DAS), where the varietal effect was statistically significant (p < 0.05) (Table 1). Variety V2 (California Wonder F1) exhibited slightly higher germination (33%) compared to V1 (Sagar Hybrid F1) at 28%. However, from 18 DAS onwards, no significant differences were found between varieties, indicating that both ultimately reached comparable final germination percentages (82%-83%) by 30 DAS. Table 1 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on germination percentage (%), germination rate index and seedling vigor index Variety Germination percentage Germination rate index Vigor index 12DAS 18 DAS 24 DAS 30 DAS V1 28a 70.66a 82.86a 83.86a 61.12a 682.07a V2 33a 66.33a 80.53a 80.86a 59.48a 704.50a SEM(±) 1.75 2.31 2.22 2.04 1.58 59.4 LSD0.05 5.16 6.81 6.56 6.02 4.66 175.4 Fvalue 3.962 1.870 0.563 1.086 0.562 0.065 Pr(>F) * NS NS NS NS NS Treatment M1 24.16cd 52.50d 68.83b 70.50b 50.02a 437.78b M2 35.00ab 61.66cd 81.00a 81.00a 59.04b 697.17ab M3 20.00d 70.00bc 83.66a 83.66a 60.18ab 661.29ab M4 43.33a 75.83ab 90.00a 90.83a 67.70a 720.13ab M5 30.00bc 82.50a 85.00a 85.83a 64.60ab 950.05a SEM(±) 2.76 3.65 3.52 3.23 2.50 94.0 LSD0.05 8.15 10.77 10.37 9.52 7.36 277.3 Fvalue 10.63 11.05 5.17 5.50 7.554 3.448 Pr(>F) *** *** ** ** *** * Interaction V1.M1 25.00cd 60.00c 74.66bc 76.33bc 54.62bc 398.38c V1.M2 30.00bcd 61.66c 79.33ab 79.33ab 57.54ab 749.48abc V1.M3 18.33d 73.33abc 87.00ab 87.00ab 62.38ab 562.60bc V1.M4 38.33ab 78.33ab 91.66a 93.33a 68.70a 933.63ab V1.M5 28.33bcd 80.00ab 81.66ab 83.33ab 62.40ab 766.26abc V2.M1 23.33cd 45.00d 63.00c 64.66c 45.42c 477.18bc V2.M2 40.00ab 61.66c 82.66ab 82.66ab 60.54ab 644.86bc V2.M3 21.66cd 66.66bc 80.33ab 80.33ab 57.98ab 759.98abc V2.M4 48.33a 73.33abc 88.33ab 88.33ab 66.70a 506.63bc V2.M5 31.66bc 85.00a 88.33ab 88.33ab 66.80a 1133.83a Grand mean 30.5 68.5 81.7 82.4 60.3 693.2 CV(%) 22.55 12.66 10.41 9.56 9.92 24.69 SEM(±) 3.91 5.16 4.97 4.56 3.53 132.9 LSD0.05 11.53 15.23 14.67 13.46 10.41 392.1 Fvalue 0.792 1.123 1.139 1.187 1.285 2.405 Pr(>F) NS NS NS NS NS * Note: *Significant at 5% level of significance, **Significant at 1% level of significance, ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 148 In contrast, the effect of growing media on germination was highly significant across all time points (p < 0.001 at 12 and 18 DAS, p < 0.01 at 24 and 30 DAS). Among the five media, M4 (soil + vermicompost) consistently exhibited the highest germination, reaching 90.83% at 30 DAS, followed closely by M5 (soil + FYM + coco peat), which reached 85.83%. These findings underscore the influence of organic matter-enriched media on seed emergence. The control (M1), consisting of plain soil, lagged significantly, achieving only 70.5% germination at 30 DAS. Although the interaction between variety and media was not statistically significant for germination percentage, trends revealed that V2.M5 (California Wonder in soil + FYM + coco peat) attained the highest final germination (88.33%), while the lowest was recorded in V2.M1 (control) at just 64.66%. In terms of germination rate index (GRI), no significant effect of variety was observed; however, the effect of growing media was highly significant (p < 0.001). M4 and M5 media yielded the highest GRI values at 67.70 and 64.60, respectively, indicating rapid and uniform germination under these treatments. Conversely, M1 recorded the lowest GRI (50.02), confirming the detrimental effect of nutrient-deficient media on germination speed. Although interaction effects were not statistically significant, numerically higher GRI values were observed in V1.M4 (68.70) and V2.M5 (66.80), suggesting that both media and variety together can enhance early seed performance. Seedling vigor index (SVI) exhibited a statistically significant interaction effect between variety and media (p < 0.05), even though the main effects of variety and media were individually non-significant. The combination V2.M5 recorded the highest SVI (1133.83), followed by V1.M4 (933.63) and V1.M5 (766.26), all of which grew in organically enriched media. In contrast, V1.M1 and V2.M1, both under control treatment, showed the lowest SVI values at 398.38 and 477.18, respectively. These outcomes suggest that media enriched with vermicompost, FYM, and coco peat substantially contribute to better seedling vigor, especially when paired with genetically responsive cultivars. The interaction between cultivars and growing media for germination percentage, germination rate index and vigor index are presented in Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5, respectively. This shows that both Sagar Hybrid F1 and California Wonder responded positively to enriched growing media, with Sagar Hybrid F1 consistently outperforming in germination percentage and rate, especially under Soil + Vermicompost. California Wonder showed the highest vigor index under Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost, indicating that organic media combinations significantly enhance early seedling performance. Figure 3 Interaction plot of varieties & growing media on seed germination
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 149 Figure 4 Interaction plot of varieties & growing media on seed germination rate index Figure 5 Interaction plot of varieties & growing media on vigor index 3.2 Effect of different treatments on seedling length The analysis of variance revealed a highly significant difference (p < 0.001) in seedling length between the two Capsicum varieties (Table 2). Across all observation periods—25, 30, 35, and 40 days after sowing (DAS)—California Wonder (V2) consistently exhibited longer seedlings than Sagar Hybrid F1 (V1). At 40 DAS, V2 achieved a maximum seedling length of 4.66 cm, while V1 reached 3.90 cm, with mean values of 3.14 cm and 2.65 cm, respectively. Growth media composition had a significant effect (p < 0.001) on seedling elongation at all developmental stages. The highest seedling length was observed in M5 (Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost in 1:1:1:1), recording 6.91 cm at 40 DAS. This was followed by M4 (Soil + Vermicompost) with 5.25 cm, and M3 (Soil + FYM) with 4.46 cm.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 150 Table 2 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on seedling length Variety Seedling length (cm) 25DAS 30DAS 35DAS 40DAS Average V1 1.65b 2.24b 2.81b 3.90b 2.65b V2 1.93a 2.64a 3.32a 4.66a 3.14a SEM(±) 0.046 0.062 0.090 0.133 0.073 LSD0.05 0.136 0.184 0.266 0.393 0.215 Fvalue 18.157 23.088 20.618 21.889 29.549 Pr(>F) *** *** *** *** *** Treatment M1 1.20d 1.61c 1.84d 2.18d 1.71d M2 1.57c 1.76c 2.02d 2.59d 1.98d M3 2.06ab 2.64b 3.17c 4.46c 3.08c M4 2.18a 2.88b 3.56b 5.25b 3.47b M5 1.94b 3.34a 4.75a 6.91a 4.24a SEM(±) 0.072 0.098 0.143 0.210 0.115 LSD0.05 0.215 0.291 0.421 0.621 0.340 Fvalue 31.160 63.282 91.057 114.235 110.065 Pr(>F) *** *** *** *** *** Interaction V1.M1 1.10d 1.44f 1.66e 1.96f 1.54g V1.M2 1.40d 1.59ef 1.79de 2.37ef 1.79fg V1.M3 1.86bc 2.33d 2.76c 4.02d 2.74e V1.M4 2.08ab 2.71cd 3.31b 4.68cd 3.19d V1.M5 1.83bc 3.16ab 4.55a 6.46b 4.00b V2.M1 1.30d 1.77ef 2.02de 2.41ef 1.88fg V2.M2 1.74c 1.94e 2.25cd 2.80e 2.18f V2.M3 2.25a 2.95bc 3.57b 4.90c 3.42cd V2.M4 2.29a 3.06bc 3.81b 5.83b 3.75bc V2.M5 2.06abc 3.52a 4.96a 7.36a 4.47a Grandmean 1.793 2.449 3.071 4.283 2.899 CV(%) 9.84 9.31 9.97 10.42 8.44 SEM(±) 0.103 0.139 0.202 0.298 0.163 LSD0.05 0.304 0.411 0.596 0.879 0.481 Fvalue 0.331 0.440 0.486 0.729 0.432 Pr(>F) NS NS NS NS NS Note: ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison In contrast, the control treatment M1 (Soil only) produced the shortest seedlings, with just 1.20 cm at 25 DAS and a mean of 1.71 cm across the growth period. Although the interaction between varieties and growth media was statistically non-significant, Figure 6 illustrates a clear trend in the interaction dynamics. Notably, California Wonder (V2) displayed enhanced responsiveness to organic-enriched media, particularly M5, where it attained the highest seedling length (7.36 cm) at 40 DAS. Sagar (V1) also responded well to M5, reaching 6.46 cm, yet remained consistently lower than V2 across all treatments. These visual trends highlight the synergistic effect of varietal potential and substrate quality in promoting seedling vigor.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 151 Figure 6 Interaction between varieties and growing media on shoot length 3.3 Effect of growing media on stem diameter Table 3 presents the influence of different growth media mixtures and Capsicum varieties on stem diameter. The analysis of variance showed highly significant differences (p < 0.001) between the varieties at 25, 30, and 35 days after sowing (DAS), and a significant difference (p < 0.05) at 40 DAS. Among the varieties, California Wonder (V2) consistently outperformed Sagar (V1) in stem thickness, attaining the highest diameter of 0.24 cm at 40 DAS, compared to 0.23 cm in V1. On average, V2 had a stem diameter of 0.20 cm, while V1 had 0.19 cm. Growth media composition had a profound and highly significant effect (p < 0.001) on stem diameter throughout the seedling stage. The maximum stem thickness (0.28 cm) was observed in M5 (Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost in 1:1:1:1 ratio) at 40 DAS, followed by M4 (Soil + Vermicompost) with 0.26 cm, and M3 (Soil + FYM) with 0.25 cm. The smallest stem diameter (0.11 cm) was recorded in the control treatment (M1: Soil alone) at 25 DAS. These results underscore the superior role of organic-enriched substrates in promoting stem robustness during early growth stages. While the variety × media interaction effect was not statistically significant at most stages, Figure 7 depicts discernible trends. California Wonder (V2) again showed greater responsiveness to organic amendments, particularly in M5, where it achieved a stem diameter of 0.28 cm, closely followed by M4 and M3. In contrast, Sagar (V1) showed consistently thinner stems under all media, though it also responded positively to M5, reaching 0.29 cm, its highest recorded value. These trends in Figure 7 illustrate the cumulative benefit of genetic potential and media quality in enhancing stem thickness. 3.4 Effect of different growing media on the number of leaves Table 4 presents the effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on the number of leaves, while Figure 8 illustrates the interaction effects between varieties and media types across four developmental stages (25, 30, 35, and 40 days after sowing DAS). The analysis showed no significant difference between the two varieties (V1: Sagar Hybrid F1, V2: California Wonder) in the number of leaves at any growth stage, with mean values ranging from 0.53 to 3.12 leaves per plant. This indicates that genetic variation alone did not significantly influence leaf emergence during early growth stages under the experimental conditions. In contrast, a highly significant effect (p < 0.001) was observed among the different growing media treatments at all growth stages. At 40 DAS, the highest number of leaves (5.13) was recorded in the treatment M5 (Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost at 1:1:1:1), followed by M4 (Soil + Vermicompost, 4.10) and M3 (Soil + FYM, 3.70). These enriched organic mixtures clearly promoted superior leaf development compared to the control (M1: soil alone), where seedlings failed to develop leaves at 25 and 30 DAS and only produced 0.73 leaves on average by 40 DAS.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 152 Table 3 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on stem diameter Variety Stem diameter (cm) 25DAS 30DAS 35DAS 40DAS Average V1 0.15b 0.18b 0.19b 0.23b 0.19b V2 0.16a 0.20a 0.21a 0.24a 0.20a SEM(±) 0.0031 0.0028 0.0029 0.0039 0.0025 LSD0.05 0.0092 0.0084 0.0087 0.0116 0.0074 Fvalue 18.751 21.888 22.875 5.455 25.508 Pr(>F) *** *** *** * *** Treatment M1 0.11d 0.14c 0.14d 0.18c 0.14d M2 0.14c 0.16c 0.17c 0.20c 0.17c M3 0.17b 0.20b 0.22b 0.25b 0.21b M4 0.17ab 0.21b 0.23b 0.26b 0.22a M5 0.19a 0.23a 0.25a 0.28a 0.23a SEM(±) 0.0049 0.0045 0.0047 0.0062 0.0040 LSD0.05 0.0146 0.0133 0.0138 0.0184 0.0118 Fvalue 44.913 74.905 115.092 46.415 106.646 Pr(>F) *** *** *** *** *** Interaction V1.M1 0.10e 0.13f 0.13g 0.17e 0.13f V1.M2 0.13d 0.14ef 0.15fg 0.19de 0.15e V1.M3 0.16c 0.20c 0.21d 0.25c 0.20c V1.M4 0.18ab 0.21bc 0.22c 0.25bc 0.22b V1.M5 0.17bc 0.22ab 0.25a 0.29a 0.23ab V2.M1 0.12de 0.16e 0.15f 0.20de 0.15e V2.M2 0.15c 0.17d 0.19e 0.21d 0.18d V2.M3 0.18ab 0.21bc 0.23bc 0.26bc 0.22ab V2.M4 0.19a 0.22ab 0.24abc 0.27abc 0.23ab V2.M5 0.18ab 0.23a 0.25ab 0.28ab 0.24a Grandmean 0.160 0.194 0.207 0.241 0.200 CV(%) 7.68 5.38 4.93 6.33 4.60 SEM(±) 0.0070 0.0063 0.0066 0.0088 0.0056 LSD0.05 0.0207 0.0188 0.0196 0.0260 0.0167 Fvalue 0.394 1.400 3.520 0.888 1.444 Pr(>F) NS NS * NS NS Note: ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison Figure 7 Interaction between cultivars and growing media on stem diameter
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 153 Table 4 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on number of leaves Variety Leaf number 25DAS 30DAS 35DAS 40DAS Average V1 0.58a 1.34a 2.14a 2.89a 1.74a V2 0.53a 1.38a 2.26a 3.12a 1.82a SEM(±) 0.0904 0.0943 0.1366 0.1286 0.1045 LSD0.05 0.2668 0.2781 0.4030 0.3793 0.3081 Fvalue 0.167 0.097 0.386 1.538 0.321 Pr(>F) NS NS NS NS NS Treatment M1 0.00c 0.00c 0.23c 0.73d 0.24c M2 0.00c 0.00c 0.63c 1.36c 0.50c M3 0.46b 2.03b 2.66b 3.70b 2.21b M4 1.06a 2.13b 3.16b 4.10b 2.61b M5 1.26a 2.66a 4.33a 5.13a 3.35a SEM(±) 0.1430 0.1491 0.2160 0.2033 0.1652 LSD0.05 0.4218 0.4398 0.6373 0.5998 0.4872 Fvalue 16.384 79.035 64.518 84.161 68.036 Pr(>F) *** *** *** *** *** Interaction V1.M1 0.00e 0.00c 0.13d 0.40e 0.13d V1.M2 0.00e 0.00c 0.26d 1.06de 0.33d V1.M3 0.66cd 1.86b 2.53c 3.73c 2.20c V1.M4 0.80bcd 2.00b 3.20bc 4.00c 2.50bc V1.M5 1.46a 2.86a 4.60a 5.26a 3.55a V2.M1 0.00e 0.00c 0.33d 1.06de 0.35d V2.M2 0.00e 0.00c 1.00d 1.66d 0.66d V2.M3 0.26de 2.20b 2.80c 3.66c 2.23c V2.M4 1.33ab 2.26ab 3.13bc 4.20bc 2.73bc V2.M5 1.06abc 2.46ab 4.06ab 5.00ab 3.15ab Grandmean 0.560 1.367 2.207 3.007 1.785 CV(%) 18.74 25.62 23.96 16.64 22.56 SEM(±) 0.2022 0.2108 0.3055 0.2875 0.2336 LSD0.05 0.5965 0.6219 0.9012 0.8482 0.6890 Fvalue 1.736 1.022 1.161 0.992 0.783 Pr(>F) NS NS NS NS NS Note: ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison Figure 8 reveals the interaction trends between varieties and media types. Although the interaction effect was not statistically significant, graphical analysis shows that both varieties exhibited the highest leaf counts when grown in M5, with V1 and V2 producing 5.26 and 5.00 leaves, respectively, at 40 DAS. Interestingly, V1 (Sagar Hybrid F1) responded more favorably to M5, surpassing V2 at certain stages such as 35 DAS (4.60 vs. 4.06 leaves). Meanwhile, V2 showed slightly better performance than V1 in M4 and M3 treatments. The control and cocopeat-only treatments (M1 and M2) consistently resulted in minimal leaf development for both varieties.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 154 Figure 8 Interactions between varieties and growing media on leaf number 3.5 Effect of growing media on root length and leaf area The findings from Table 5, supported by the interaction plots in Figure 9 and Figure 10, reveal that both capsicum variety and growing media significantly affected root length and leaf area 40 days after sowing, although the interaction effect was statistically non-significant for both traits (p > 0.05). Among the varieties, California Wonder (V2) recorded significantly greater root length (4.36 cm) compared to Sagar Hybrid F1 (V1) (3.72 cm), while for leaf area, although no significant difference was detected, California Wonder showed a numerically higher mean value (4.28 cm2) than Sagar Hybrid F1 (3.33 cm2). The media treatment Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost (M5) significantly outperformed all others, resulting in the longest roots (5.70 cm) and largest leaf area (9.75 cm2), followed by Soil + FYM (M4) and Soil + Cocopeat + FYM (M3). The poorest growth was seen in the Control (M1) and Soil + Cocopeat (M2), both of which had notably lower values for root length and leaf area. As shown in Figure 9, California Wonder showed a sharp increase in root length under enriched media (especially M5), peaking above 6 cm, while Sagar Hybrid F1 also improved with enrichment but to a lesser extent. Similarly, in Figure 10, both varieties had the lowest leaf areas under M1 and M2, while the highest was recorded for California Wonder under M5, exceeding 10 cm2, compared to Sagar Hybrid F1’s 8.78 cm2 under the same treatment. These trends suggest that while varietal differences exist, growing media composition has a much stronger influence, particularly when supplemented with organic amendments like FYM and vermicompost. Although the varietal × media interaction was not statistically significant, the graphical patterns confirm that California Wonder responds more positively to enriched conditions, especially in terms of root elongation and canopy development, emphasizing the importance of integrated organic media for robust seedling establishment. 3.6 Effect of different growing media on mass of seedlings The results presented in Table 6 and illustrated in Figure 11 and Figure 12 demonstrate that both the variety and growing media treatments significantly influenced the fresh weight and dry weight of capsicum seedlings, although their interaction effect was statistically non-significant. Among the varieties, California Wonder (V2) recorded a higher mean fresh weight (0.56 g) and dry weight (0.06 g) compared to Sagar Hybrid F1 (V1), which had 0.47 g fresh weight and 0.04 g dry weight, with significant varietal differences observed at the 5% level for both parameters. Regarding media treatments, the Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost (M5) treatment resulted in the highest values for both fresh weight (1.13 g) and dry weight (0.12 g), followed by Soil + FYM (M4) and Soil + Cocopeat + FYM (M3), which produced moderate values. In contrast, control (M1) and Soil + Cocopeat (M2) had the lowest values for both traits.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 155 Table 5 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on root length and leaf area Variety Root length (40 DAS) Leaf area (40 DAS) V1 3.72b 3.33a V2 4.36a 4.28a SEM(±) 0.1217 0.382 LSD0.05 0.3589 1.128 Fvalue 14.893 3.803 Pr(>F) ** * Treatments M1 2.87d 0.18d M2 3.10d 0.45d M3 3.96c 2.86c M4 4.59b 5.78b M5 5.70a 9.75a SEM(±) 0.1924 0.604 LSD0.05 0.5675 1.783 Fvalue 38.829 54.692 Pr(>F) *** *** Interactions V1.M1 2.66e 0.09f V1.M2 3.10de 0.28f V1.M3 3.65cd 2.67de V1.M4 4.15c 4.84cd V1.M5 5.06b 8.78ab V2.M1 3.09de 0.28f V2.M2 3.10de 0.63ef V2.M3 4.26bc 3.046d V2.M4 5.02b 6.72bc V2.M5 5.02b 10.73a Grandmean 4.047 3.81 CV(%) 11.19 22.92 SEM(±) 0.2720 0.855 LSD0.05 0.8025 2.522 Fvalue 1.689 0.664 Pr(>F) NS NS Note: ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison Figure 9 Interactions between varieties and Growing media root length
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 156 Figure 10 Interactions between varieties and Growing media on leaf area Table 6 Effect of growth media mixtures with capsicum varieties on fresh weight and dry weight Variety Fresh weight Dryweight V1 0.47a 0.04b V2 0.56a 0.06a SEM(±) 0.0392 0.0037 LSD0.05 0.1157 0.0109 Fvalue 3.064 5.863 Pr(>F) * * Treatments M1 0.13c 0.02c M2 0.13c 0.01c M3 0.53b 0.04b M4 0.67b 0.05b M5 1.13a 0.12a SEM(±) 0.0620 0.0058 LSD0.05 0.1829 0.0173 Fvalue 51.343 55.310 Pr(>F) *** *** Interactions V1.M1 0.11d 0.02de V1.M2 0.11d 0.01e V1.M3 0.46c 0.04cd V1.M4 0.59bc 0.05c V1.M5 1.09a 0.10b V2.M1 0.15d 0.02de V2.M2 0.16d 0.02de V2.M3 0.59bc 0.05c V2.M4 0.75b 0.06c V2.M5 1.17a 0.13a Grandmean 0.523 0.0547 CV(%) 27.33 24.82 SEM(±) 0.0877 0.0083 LSD0.05 0.2587 0.0245 Fvalue 0.185 0.564 Pr(>F) NS NS Note: ***Significant at 0.1% level of significance, NS: Non-significant, LSD: Least significant difference, SEM: Standard error of the mean, CV: Coefficient of difference, Where M represents growing media and V represents varieties, different lowercase letters represent mean comparison
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 157 Figure 11 Interaction plot between growing media and cultivars of capsicum on fresh weight Figure 12 Interaction plot between varieties and growing media on dry weight These results are consistent with the interaction trends shown in Figure 11, where fresh weight peaked dramatically under M5 for both varieties, with California Wonder slightly outperforming Sagar Hybrid F1. A similar pattern was observed for dry weight in Figure 12, where California Wonder again showed higher dry matter accumulation under M5, followed by M4 and M3, and the lowest under M1 and M2. Though the interaction effect (V × M) was statistically non-significant (p > 0.05), the trend indicates that enriched media combinations, particularly those including vermicompost, significantly enhance seedling biomass. The variability (CV%) for fresh and dry weights was moderately high, at 27.33% and 24.82%, respectively, indicating environmental influence or individual seedling response variability. Overall, the results suggest that California Wonder had a superior biomass response, and Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost proved to be the most effective media combination for promoting early seedling growth in both varieties.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 158 4 Discussion The study revealed that growing media had a stronger influence on seed germination, germination rate index (GRI), and seedling vigor index (SVI) than variety. While varietal differences in germination were only significant at 12 DAS, both varieties reached similar final germination (~82%-83%) by 30 DAS. In contrast, media enriched with organic matter—especially M4 (soil + vermicompost) and M5 (soil + FYM + coco peat)—consistently enhanced germination (up to 90.83%), GRI (67.70), and SVI (1133.83). These findings align with Arancon et al. (2012a), who reported improved germination and seedling vigor in media amended with vermicompost due to increased microbial activity and nutrient availability. Similarly, Araujo et al. (2012) attributed better germination performance to the presence of beneficial microbes in organic substrates, which may explain the faster and more uniform emergence seen here. Awang et al. (2009) found that coco peat improved water retention and aeration, supporting our results where M5 showed strong GRI and SVI values. Bhardwaj (2013) also emphasized the role of FYM in enhancing seedling health through slow nutrient release. Compared to Agrawal et al. (2007), who linked improved germination to better physiological conditions, our findings confirm that enriched media modify both environmental and physiological factors to boost early seed performance. The study found that both variety and growing media significantly influenced seedling length in Capsicum. California Wonder (V2) consistently produced longer seedlings than Sagar Hybrid (V1) across all time points, with a maximum length of 4.66 cm at 40 DAS. This varietal difference may be attributed to inherent genetic vigor and growth potential, as suggested by Khanal et al. (2024), who observed superior elongation in pepper genotypes with higher metabolic efficiency and better resource utilization. Growing media had an even greater effect, with M5 (soil + cocopeat + FYM + vermicompost) supporting the longest seedlings (6.91 cm), likely due to enhanced aeration, moisture retention, and sustained nutrient release. This is consistent with Mathowa et al. (2017), who reported improved seedling growth in nutrient-rich and well-aerated media. M4 and M3 also performed well, highlighting the contribution of organic amendments like vermicompost and FYM. These media may have facilitated better root development and nutrient uptake, as also noted by Olatunji et al. (2019), who emphasized the role of organic matter in promoting seedling elongation. Although the interaction between variety and media was not statistically significant, the stronger response of V2 in enriched media (especially M5) supports Matsubara et al. (2011), who found genotype-specific responses to substrate conditions in early seedling growth. The study revealed that both varietal differences and growing media composition significantly influenced stem diameter in Capsicum seedlings. California Wonder (V2) consistently exhibited greater stem thickness than Sagar Hybrid (V1), with the highest diameter of 0.24 cm at 40 DAS. This aligns with Khanal et al. (2024), who reported that certain genotypes possess superior structural vigor due to enhanced physiological efficiency and better nutrient allocation. Growth media had a more pronounced effect, with M5 (soil + cocopeat + FYM + vermicompost) supporting the highest stem diameter (0.28 cm), followed by M4 and M3. These findings are consistent with Mathowa et al. (2017) and Olatunji et al. (2019), who found that organic-enriched substrates improve stem robustness through improved soil structure, water-holding capacity, and nutrient content. The high organic matter in M5 likely facilitated sustained nutrient release and optimal moisture balance, contributing to stronger stem development. Although the interaction effect between variety and media was not statistically significant, visual trends showed V2 responding more favorably to enriched substrates, especially M5. This supports Matsubara et al. (2011), who noted genotype-specific growth responses to substrate quality, and mirrors trends in seedling elongation. These outcomes confirm that the synergy between cultivar potential and media quality enhances early seedling vigor, particularly in structural parameters like stem diameter. The number of leaves in Capsicum seedlings was significantly influenced by the growing media but not by variety. Across all stages, no significant varietal effect was observed, with V1 and V2 producing a similar number of leaves, suggesting that genetic differences alone did not drive leaf emergence under these conditions. This aligns with Singh et al. (2019a), who found that early leaf development in Capsicum is more responsive to substrate quality than to cultivar. In contrast, growing media had a highly significant effect (p < 0.001) at all stages. M5
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.4, 143-161 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 159 (soil + cocopeat + FYM + vermicompost) supported the highest leaf production (5.13 leaves at 40 DAS), followed by M4 and M3. The superior performance of these organic-enriched substrates can be attributed to their improved physical and chemical properties, which enhance nutrient uptake and moisture retention. This supports Rekha et al. (2018) and Ravindran et al. (2019), who highlighted the role of organic amendments in promoting leaf initiation through better root-zone conditions. Although the variety × media interaction was not statistically significant, trends revealed V1 responded slightly better in M5, while V2 performed marginally better in M3 and M4. These findings are consistent with Singh et al. (2019b), who reported that genotype-media interactions can influence growth patterns, even when not statistically significant. Both variety and growing media significantly influenced root length and leaf area in Capsicum at 40 DAS, though their interaction was not statistically significant. California Wonder (V2) exhibited significantly longer roots (4.36 cm) than Sagar Hybrid (V1) (3.72 cm), while it also showed a higher, though non-significant, leaf area (4.28 cm2 vs. 3.33 cm2). These varietal differences reflect inherent physiological capacities, as suggested by Ravindran et al. (2019), who noted that genotypes with greater root expansion are better at nutrient and water uptake. Growing media had a much more pronounced effect. M5 (Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost) produced the longest roots (5.70 cm) and largest leaf area (9.75 cm2), indicating superior physical and nutritional conditions. These findings align with Singh et al. (2019a) and Rekha et al. (2018), who observed enhanced root and canopy development in substrates rich in organic matter. The poor performance of M1 (control) and M2 (soil + cocopeat) further supports the role of balanced nutrient inputs in promoting early seedling growth. Although the interaction effect was not significant, graphical trends showed V2 responding more strongly to enriched media, particularly M5, where it exceeded 6 cm in root length and 10 cm2 in leaf area. This supports Singh et al. (2019b), who emphasized the genotype-specific advantages under optimal media conditions. Both variety and growing media had significant effects on the fresh and dry weights of Capsicum seedlings, with growing media exerting a stronger influence. California Wonder (V2) consistently showed higher biomass accumulation, with fresh and dry weights of 0.56 g and 0.06 g, respectively, compared to Sagar Hybrid (V1), which recorded 0.47 g and 0.04 g. These findings align with Khanal et al. (2024) and Ravindran et al. (2019), who reported that varietal differences in biomass accumulation are linked to genotypic efficiency in resource uptake and translocation. Among media treatments, M5 (Soil + Cocopeat + FYM + Vermicompost) resulted in the highest biomass (1.13 g fresh and 0.12 g dry), demonstrating the superior nutritional and moisture-retaining capacity of this enriched mix. This agrees with Rekha et al. (2018) and Olatunji et al. (2019), who showed that organic amendments enhance seedling biomass by improving nutrient availability and root development. Poor performance in M1 (control) and M2 (soil + cocopeat) further emphasizes the importance of balanced organic inputs. Although the variety × media interaction was not statistically significant, trends showed that California Wonder responded more positively to organic-enriched substrates. These results are supported by Singh et al. (2019b), who highlighted that such media improve seedling growth across diverse genotypes, particularly in early stages. 5 Conclusion The study demonstrated that the growth media composition significantly influenced the vegetative parameters of Capsicum varieties, with soil + cocopeat + FYM + vermicompost (1:1:1:1) emerging as the most effective medium. This treatment consistently showed superior results in seedling length (6.91 cm), stem diameter (0.28 cm), number of leaves (5.13), root length (5.70 cm), leaf area (9.75 cm2), fresh weight (1.13 g), and dry weight (0.12 g) at 40 DAS. The second-best performing medium was soil + vermicompost, which also provided substantial improvements in plant growth compared to control soil. The high performance of these media can be attributed to enhanced water retention, better aeration, and increased nutrient availability, as supported by various studies. Among the Capsicum varieties, California Wonder consistently exhibited higher vegetative growth than Sagar, particularly in seedling length, stem diameter, root length, and fresh weight. The lowest growth performance was observed in the control treatment (soil alone), indicating that organic amendments are essential
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