International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 80-90 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 82 and root development. Research has shown that replacing a portion of mineral fertilizers with organic amendments can lead to improved berry quality, higher sugar content, and better overall grapevine health (El-Salhy et al., 2023; Muhammed et al., 2023). Moreover, organic and biodynamic management practices, although sometimes resulting in lower yields, can enhance soil health and long-term sustainability of vineyards (Döring et al., 2015). 4 Water Management and Irrigation Practices 4.1 Irrigation strategies for high yield Effective irrigation strategies are crucial for optimizing grapevine yield and quality, especially in regions with seasonal drought. Deficit irrigation (DI) has emerged as a promising approach, allowing grapevines to endure mild water stress without significant yield reduction and potentially enhancing fruit quality. This method involves applying water below full crop evapotranspiration (ETc), which can improve water use efficiency (WUE) and control vine vigor (Chaves et al., 2010). For instance, a study on Spanish grapevine cultivars demonstrated that moderate irrigation improved plant water status, leaf photosynthesis, and transpiration, leading to increased grape yield, particularly in the Tempranillo variety. Additionally, direct root-zone irrigation, a subsurface drip irrigation strategy, has shown to outperform traditional surface drip irrigation by improving grape yield and WUE while restricting root growth, which can be beneficial under varied climate conditions (Ma et al., 2020). 4.2 Water use efficiency Improving WUE is essential for sustainable vineyard management, particularly under the increasing aridity induced by global climate change. WUE reflects the ratio between carbon assimilated by photosynthesis and water lost through transpiration. Strategies such as regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and partial root drying (PRD) can enhance WUE by maintaining partial stomatal closure, although this may reduce photosynthesis and yield (Flexas et al., 2010; Silva et al., 2018). For example, an experiment in north-eastern Portugal found that the highest WUE was achieved with no irrigation, but this resulted in very low yield. The best balance between yield and berry quality was obtained by irrigating from flowering to veraison at approximately 50% of potential evapotranspiration (Oliveira et al., 2012). Moreover, combining mulching with sub-surface irrigation has been shown to maximize WUE, increase yield, and improve berry quality (Zhang et al., 2014). 4.3 Addressing drought stress Addressing drought stress in grapevines involves understanding the physiological and molecular responses to water scarcity. Grapevines exhibit different behaviors under water stress, such as isohydric and anisohydric responses, which influence their ability to maintain water status and photosynthetic activity (Chaves et al., 2010; Silva et al., 2018). For instance, deficit irrigation can improve WUE and control vine vigor, which in turn enhances fruit quality by increasing the concentration of anthocyanins and total phenols in the berry skin. Additionally, the use of transparent plastic covers in combination with deficit irrigation has been shown to save water and improve grapevine cultivation in tropical conditions without affecting yield and fruit quality (Silva et al., 2018). Properly regulated deficit irrigation, combined with low to moderate nitrogen application, can reduce canopy size, accelerate ripening, and improve fruit color, although it may also reduce yeast-assimilable nitrogen in the fruit, increasing the risk of fermentation issues. 5 Canopy Management and Training Systems 5.1 Pruning and training techniques Pruning and training techniques are fundamental to shaping the grapevine canopy and influencing its productivity (Figure 1). Different training systems, such as Gobelet and Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), have been shown to impact vegetative growth, light interception, and fruit composition. For instance, the Gobelet system enhances vegetative activity and yield due to improved light exposure, making it suitable for regions with high photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) (Salvi et al., 2017). Additionally, mechanical pruning methods, such as mechanical box pruning, can increase yield per meter of row by promoting vegetative compensation and maintaining optimal canopy architecture (Kurtural et al., 2013).
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