International Journal of Horticulture 2025, Vol.15, No.2 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved.
International Journal of Horticulture 2025, Vol.15, No.2 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Publisher HortHerb Publisher Editedby Editorial Team of International Journal of Horticulture Email: edit@ijh.hortherbpublisher.com Website: http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh Address: 11388 Stevenston Hwy, PO Box 96016, Richmond, V7A 5J5, British Columbia Canada International Journal of Horticulture (ISSN 1927-5803) is an open access, peer reviewed journal published online by HortHerb Publisher. The journal publishes all the latest and outstanding research articles, letters and reviews in all aspects of horticultural and its relative science, containing horticultural products, protection; agronomic, entomology, plant pathology, plant nutrition, breeding, post harvest physiology, and biotechnology, are also welcomed; as well as including the tropical fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and industrial crops grown in the open and under protection. HortHerb Publisher is an international Open Access publisher specializing in horticulture, herbal sciences, and tea-related research registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group (SPG), founded in British Columbia of Canada. All the articles published in International Journal of Horticulture are Open Access, and are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. HortHerb Publisher uses CrossCheck service to identify academic plagiarism through the world’s leading plagiarism prevention tool, iParadigms, and to protect the original authors’ copyrights.
International Journal of Horticulture (online), 2025, Vol. 15, No.2 ISSN 1927-5803 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh © 2025 HortHerb Publisher, registered at the publishing platform that is operated by Sophia Publishing Group, founded in British Columbia of Canada. All Rights Reserved. Latest Content Impact of Exogenous Gibberellic Acid, Salicylic Acid, and Calcium Chloride on Tomato Fruit's Postharvest Quality and Shelf Life Priya Dhital, Krish Rauniyar, Chudamani Bhattarai International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 2, 51-60 Optimization and Application of High-Yield Cultivation Techniques for Yellow Pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) MinDong International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 2, 61-72 Performance Evaluation of Different Varieties of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) in Pyuthan District, Nepal Unish Nepali, Swekxya Pathak, Susmita Adhikari, Raju Khatri, Sushmita Adhikari, Pradip Baniya International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 2, 73-79 High Yield in Grapevines: A Review of Theories and Agronomic Practices Jia Song International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 2, 80-90 Effects of Light and Cultivation Conditions on the Growth Performance of Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis Fei Yang, Fang Wang, Qianlu Gu, Wentao He, Decheng Hong, Mengyan Yu, Jinxiao Yao International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol. 15, No. 2, 91-98
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 51 Research Article Open Access Impact of Exogenous Gibberellic Acid, Salicylic Acid, and Calcium Chloride on Tomato Fruit's Postharvest Quality and Shelf Life Priya Dhital 1 , Krish Rauniyar2, Chudamani Bhattarai 3 1 Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST), Purbanchal University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, 5600, Nepal 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST), Purbanchal University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, 5600, Nepal 3 Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project (PMAMP), PIU Bhaktapur, 44800, Nepal Corresponding author: priyadhital.agri@gmail.com International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2 doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0006 Received: 15 Dec., 2024 Accepted: 22 Jan., 2025 Published: 30 Mar., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Dhital et al., This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Dhital P., Rauniyar K., and Bhattarai C., 2025, Impact of exogenous gibberellic acid, salicylic acid, and calcium chloride on tomato fruit's postharvest quality and shelf life, International Journal of Horticulture, 15(2): 51-60 (doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0006) Abstract Tomatoes are vital to Nepalese agriculture, but inadequate post-harvest management, lack of cold storage facilities and inefficient transportation infrastructure lead to significant losses. This study evaluates the shelf life and quality of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit cv. ‘Shrijana’ stored at ambient condition after post-harvest, exogenous treatment with GA3 (O.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3%), SA (0.1 mM, 0.2 mM and 0.3 mM), And CaCl2 (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%). A Completely Randomized Design (CRD) comprising ten treatments with three replications was executed and the statistical analysis of data was completed using GenStat and Microsoft Excel. The tested fruits were stored at room temperature of an average of (26.9±2) °C (dry) and (20.5±2) °C (wet). The data on quality parameters was collected after 15 days of storage and 25 days of storage. All the tested treatments indicated a significant delay in titratable acidity and ascorbic acid degradation, and maintenance of lower pH in tomato fruits as compared to the control. The statistical result revealed that among the treatments, at 15 days of storage, the maximum retention of titratable acidity (0.58%) and ascorbic acid (14.23 mg/100 g) was observed in T1 (0.1% GA3). With the increasing storage period, the ripening progressed, marked by the declined values of acidity, and ascorbic acid along with increased TSS values on the 25th day. It was concluded that postharvest treatments are significant in maintaining the chemical qualities, shelf life (28.72 days), and marketable fruit% of the tomatoes harvested at the turning and pink stage. Treatment with 0.1% GA3 significantly influenced the chemical qualities and maximum shelf life of tomato. This study provides low-cost and efficient solutions for tomato postharvest management in developing countries. Keywords Exogenous treatments; Postharvest quality; Tomato; Gibberellic acid; Salicylic acid; Calcium chloride; Shelf life 1 Introduction Solanum lycopersicumis an annual crop and one of the popular fresh vegetables grown in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates of Nepal. Alongside cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli and radish, tomato is also among the fresh vegetables grown the most in terms of area and productivity in Nepal (MoALD, 2023). It is a plant with angular and hairy stem, pinnately compound leaves that are lobed and alternate and flowers are borne in clusters on the main axis and on lateral branches (Mallick, 2021). Its fruit is globular/ovoid and may be either bilocular or multilocular consisting of about 50 to 200 seeds enclosed in a gelatinous membrane within the locular cavities (OECD, 2017). Nutritionally, tomato is rich in various vitamins such as Vitamins A, C, and K and carotenoids such as lycopene and carotene which act as antioxidants (Esguerra and Rolle, 2018). It is used for several purposes such as multiple culinary uses (salad, pickle, cooked vegetable, sauce, ketchup) while its high acidic content makes it popular for canning (Bhandari et al., 2016). It is a highly perishable climacteric vegetable that over ripens and softens quickly leading to decreased quality and limited shelf life (Batu, 2004). During the recent fiscal year, the area of production of tomato has increased up to 22 911 hectares and resulted in a total production of 422 703 metric tonnes i.e., yield of 18.45 Mt/Ha (MoALD, 2023). The tomato industry has experienced a significant surge in consumption and demand, correlating with increased production. Particularly in the hilly areas where plastic house and off-season production during summer rainy seasons are trending with comparative advantages (Ghimire et al., 2017). Despite the promising demand, abundant opportunities, and
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 52 heightened productivity potential there are considerable post-harvest losses. The adoption of post-harvest techniques lags among the farmers, primarily due to a lack of technical knowledge and insufficient extension visits (Dhakal and Maharjan, 2023). The alternate solutions such as use of “Cold storage” is not practical as well as feasible as green tomatoes develop chilling injury at temperatures lower than 12 °C (Rugkong, 2009), later inducing physiological disorders such as surface pitting (Soleimani Aghdam et al., 2012), total failure of fruit color development (Rugkong, 2009), increased susceptibility to Alternaria rot (Ding et al., 2002), and prove to be detrimental to tomato flavor quality (Maul et al., 2000). Other solutions such as modified atmospheric packaging, controlled atmospheric packaging, etc. require high investment cost, energy and technology which developing countries like Nepal cannot facilitate. For that reason, research on alternative postharvest management methods that are economically friendly, readily available, and feasible for use by marginal farmers in developing countries is imperative such as the use of CaCl2 as mentioned by Arah et al. (2016). Exogenous treatment with GA3 in tomatoes reduced TSS and pH, but maintained high levels of titratable acidity and ascorbic acid content. The optimum concentration for such effects was reported to be 0.1% and 40 mg/L, respectively (Pila et al., 2010; Singh and Patel, 2014). These findings indicate that GA3 can delay respiration and metabolic activity, hence improving postharvest quality and extending shelf life under different storage conditions. This is in agreement with the findings of Demes et al. (2021) and Dhami et al. (2023).The treatments of calcium chloride of variable concentrations, such as 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%, were found to exert a great impact on the post-harvest quality and shelf life of tomatoes by reducing TSS, pH, and sugar levels while maintaining higher titratable acidity and ascorbic acid content in tomatoes (Pila et al., 2010; Mazumder et al., 2021). These treatments effectively retard metabolic activity, slowing down the ripening process and hence increasing the shelf life. Very often, optimum effects were obtained at 1.5% or 2% CaCl2, under both ambient and cold storage conditions (Abbasi et al, 2013; Demes et al., 2021; Dhami et al., 2023). Pre- and post-harvest treatments of SA have been found to influence tomatoes' quality and shelf-life characteristics, which are reflected in higher retention of ascorbic acid and titratable acidity, delay in accumulation of TSS, and extension in storage life. From these, the best results recorded varied between 0.4-1.2 mM on account of conditions prevalent for storage and the different varieties of tomato, reported earlier on by Baninaiem et al. (2016); Mandal et al., (2016); Kumar et al. (2018) and Chavan and Sakhale (2020). The present investigation aims to study the impact of exogenous application of plant growth regulators gibberellic acid, salicylic acid, and calcium chloride as a post-harvest treatment method on tomato chemical quality and shelf life under ambient conditions. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Procurement of tomato (sample) The “Shrijana” variety of tomatoes, the most grown variety throughout the seasons in Nepal, was procured from farmers in Shankharapur municipality, Sankhu, Kathmandu. Fresh healthy tomatoes harvested in the turning and pink /breaker stage, evenly proportioned, unbruised, and with no injury and signs of disease were selected and collected. 2.2 Experimental design and treatment detail This study employed the Completely Randomized Design (CRD), which consisted of 10 treatments, each replicated three times (Table 1). The tomatoes were cleaned, washed, sterilized using sodium hypochlorite (500 ppm for 10 min), and air dried before dipping in respective chemical solutions. A sample size of 10 tomatoes was allocated for each treatment. After treatment, the fruits were kept in a makeshift aluminum bowl. Data were taken in alternate day intervals until signs of decay or spoilage were observed and then, the chemical parameters were analyzed after 15 days of storage and on the 25th day of storage until commercial condition. The ambient temperature of the storage room was noted.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 53 Table 1 Detailed descriptions of treatments and chemical solutions applied in the experiment SN Treatment Treatment details 1 T1 0.1% gibberellic acid (Dipped in 0.1% GA3 for 20 mins) 2 T2 0.2% gibberellic acid (Dipped in 0.2% GA3 for 20 mins) 3 T3 0.3% gibberellic acid (Dipped in 0.3% GA3 for 20 mins) 4 T4 0.5% calcium chloride (Dipped in 0.5% CaCl2 for 20 mins) 5 T5 1% calcium chloride (Dipped in 1% CaCl2 for 20 mins) 6 T6 1.5% calcium chloride (Dipped in 1.5% CaCl2 for 20 mins) 7 T7 0.1 mM salicylic acid (Dipped in 0.1 mM SA for 20 mins) 8 T8 0.2 mM salicylic acid (Dipped in 0.2 mM SA for 20 mins) 9 T9 0.3 mM salicylic acid (Dipped in 0.3 mM SA for 20 mins) 10 T10 Control (Dipped in distilled water for 20 mins) 2.3 Parameters observed 2.3.1 Total soluble solids (TSS) Determination of TSS which is the total soluble solid present in the unit volume of solution was carried out using a handheld Refractometer. A drop of the blended tomato juice sample was placed on the prism and the percentage of dry substances in it was read directly. The TSS value thus obtained is expressed in º Brix. 2.3.2 Titratable acidity and sugar acid ratio The juice from the sample was extracted and filtered. After, the dilution of the extract i.e., 10 mL juice mixed with 100 mL of distilled water aliquot was formed. Three drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to 25 mL of the aliquot. Titration was conducted using 0.1 N NaOH alkali solution until the pink endpoint was reached and persisted for 30 seconds. The quantity of alkali consumed was recorded for 3-4 readings. The volume of alkali consumed was measured by subtracting the initial reading from the final reading. Furthermore, the following formulae were used for the calculation of percentage acidity and the sugar-acid ratio: 2.3.3 pH pH was determined using a digital pH meter. The juice was extracted from the experimental sample and filtered to remove solid particles. Then, pH meter probe was immersed into the extracted juice and kept stable for two minutes to ensure an accurate reading. To enhance the reliability of the measurement, the instrument was calibrated using standard buffer solutions before the measurement and cleaned it after each use to prevent cross-contamination. The final reading was recorded as the pH value of the sample, which was used for further analysis of its changes over storage time and under different treatments. 2.3.4 Ascorbic acid Ascorbic acid or vitamin C can be determined by the redox titration method. In this method, dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) was used as a dye for titration of the centrifuged sample until the sample changed its color to pink. The ascorbic acid measurement was calculated using the formula below (Ranganna, 2015).
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 54 100 mL of conical glass was filled with five milliliters of working standard using a pipette. After that, 10 mL of 4% oxalic acid was added, and the dye was titrated. The amount of ascorbic acid was equivalent to the amount of dye that was consumed until the moment at which pink coloring appeared. In 4% oxalic acid, two milliliters of the sample were extracted, and 12 milliliters of a known volume were prepared and centrifuged. A titration against the dye was performed using five milliliters of this supernatant, to which 10 milliliters of 4% oxalic acid was added. The quantity of titer in the formula corresponded to this dye consumption. 2.3.5 Shelf life Tomato’s shelf life was determined by calculating the number of days required to attain the last stage of ripening and then at the point where the fruit could still be sold i.e., it remained acceptable for marketing. 2.3.6 Marketable fruit (%) The percentage of marketable fruit was calculated to evaluate the postharvest quality and shelf-life maintenance of the treated samples. The calculation was performed using the following formula: 2.4 Statistical analysis Data was systematically arranged using observed parameters, and analysis of variance was performed using EXCEL and GENSTAT. The available literature was used to assist in the analysis of the data and the discussion of the findings. 3 Results and Analysis 3.1 Total soluble solid (º Brix) ANOVA showed statistically similar values between treatments (GA3, CaCl2, SA, and the control) and TSS in the tomatoes (Table 2). The TSS values ranged from 4.35º Brix to 5.26º Brix during the 15-day storage period, where control had the maximum TSS value of 5.26º Brix. Among the treatments, T4 (0.5% CaCl2) exhibited the lowest TSS value, followed by T1 (0.1% GA3) than other treatments. Table 2 Effects of different treatments on Total Soluble Solids (TSS) after 15th DAS Treatment code Treatments Total soluble solid (TSS) T1 0.1%GA3 4.4 T2 0.2%GA3 4.53 T3 0.3%GA3 4.65 T4 0.5%CaCl2 4.35 T5 1%CaCl2 4.96 T6 1.5%CaCl2 4.48 T7 0.1mMSA 4.68 T8 0.2mMSA 4.77 T9 0.3mMSA 4.46 T10 Control 5.26 SE±M - 0.37 LSDat 5% - 0.79 CV% - 9.9 Note: SE±M = Standard error of differences of mean, LSD = Least significant difference, CV = Coefficient of variation, DAS= Days after storage
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 55 3.2 Titratable acidity Titratable acidity is the total acid concentration in fruits. TA decreased showing a significant difference (p<0.001) with a grand mean of 0.53% on the 15th day of storage (Table 3). The highest TA was identified in T1 (0.1% GA3) with 0.58% and T6 (1.5% CaCl2) with 0.57%, while the lowest TA was found in the control (0.49%). Except for these, SA also proved effective in maintaining higher TA levels valued at 0.56% with treatment T9 (0.3 mM SA). However, after 25 days of storage, CaCl2-treated fruits showed maximum retention of titratable acidity (0.47%) than gibberellic acid-treated tomatoes valued at 0.43%. Table 3 Effects of different treatments on Acidity % after 15th DAS Treatment code Treatments Acidity (%) T1 0.1%GA3 0.58 T2 0.2%GA3 0.55 T3 0.3%GA3 0.52 T4 0.5%CaCl2 0.51 T5 1%CaCl2 0.53 T6 1.5%CaCl2 0.57 T7 0.1mMSA 0.52 T8 0.2mMSA 0.55 T9 0.3mMSA 0.56 T10 Control 0.49 SE±M - 0.01 LSDat 5% - 0.03 CV% - 3.1 Note: SE±M = Standard error of differences of mean, LSD = Least significant difference, CV = Coefficient of variation, DAS= Days after storage 3.3 Total sugar-acid ratio The statistical result revealed that there was a significant difference in total sugar acid ratio (p<0.05) with the lower sugar acid ratio found in T1 (0.1% GA3) and T6 (1.5% CaCl2) and the highest sugar acid ratio found in T10 or the control (Figure 1). After 25 days of storage, an increased sugar-acid ratio was observed in the remaining treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6) signifying the increased concentration of sugar and decreasing acidity levels. Figure 1 Effect of different treatments on total sugar acid ratio after 15th days after storage 3.4pH A highly significant difference (p<0.01) was observed in tomatoes treated with GA3, CaCl2, and SA during the storage period of 15 days. The highest pH was recorded in T10 (control) while the lowest pH was in T3 (0.3%
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 56 GA3) (Table 4). As the acidity decreases with ripening, pH is bound to increase. Therefore, on 25th day, pH levels were comparatively increased than on the 15th day in all the remaining treatments where tomatoes treated with CaCl2 had the lowest pH values. This relationship between acidity and pH is explained by Demes et al. (2021) by stating that the fluctuations in pH can be attributed to the decreasing levels of acidity caused by the increased activity of citric acid glyoxylase during ripening. Table 4 Effects of different treatments on pH after 15th DAS Treatment code Treatments pH T1 0.1%GA3 4.16 T2 0.2%GA3 3.87 T3 0.3%GA3 3.65 T4 0.5%CaCl2 4.43 T5 1%CaCl2 4.48 T6 1.5%CaCl2 4.42 T7 0.1mMSA 3.85 T8 0.2mMSA 3.86 T9 0.3mMSA 3.67 T10 Control 4.53 SE±M - 0.21 LSDat 5% - 0.44 CV% - 6.3 Note: SE±M = Standard error of differences of mean, LSD = Least significant difference, CV = Coefficient of variation, DAS= Days after storage 3.5 Ascorbic acid The effects of GA3, CaCl2, and SA on the ascorbic acid content of tomatoes during the storage period of fruits are shown in Table 5. There was a significant difference in ascorbic acid content among the treated fruits and untreated fruits (p<0.001). Treatments T1 (0.1% GA3), T3 (0.3% GA3), and T6 (1.5% CaCl2) retained higher amounts of ascorbic acid valued at 14.23, 11.73, and 11.43 mg/100g of tomato fruit, where the maximum retention was observed in T1. A similar pattern was observed on the 25th day, even with increased ripening and increased degradation of ascorbic acid, among the remaining treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6) T1 managed to retain higher ascorbic acid (12.5 mg/100 g) than the control set had in the 15th day. While the other treatments had ascorbic content levels ranging from 6.89 to 7.75 mg/100 g. Table 5 Effects of different treatments on Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) after 15th DAS Treatment code Treatments Ascorbic acid (mg/100 g) T1 0.1%GA3 14.23 T2 0.2%GA3 11.15 T3 0.3%GA3 11.73 T4 0.5%CaCl2 9.87 T5 1%CaCl2 10.01 T6 1.5%CaCl2 11.43 T7 0.1mMSA 9.59 T8 0.2mMSA 9.49 T9 0.3mMSA 10.36 T10 Control 9.18 SE±M - 0.26 LSDat 5% - 0.55 CV% - 3.0 Note: SE±M = Standard error of differences of mean, LSD = Least significant difference, CV = Coefficient of variation, DAS= Days after storage
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 57 3.6 Shelf life days and marketable fruit% The data shows shelf life and marketable fruit % were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by GA3, CaCl2, and SA during the storage period (Figure 2). The fruits treated with T1, T6, and T9 extended the average shelf life to almost twice that of the control (15 days). Fruits treated with T1 (0.1% GA3) had the longest possible average shelf life of 29 days followed by those treated with T6 (CaCl2 1.5%) at 27 days and T9 (0.3 mM SA) at 24 days. In the same fashion, the results for marketable fruit% follow almost the exact pattern where T1, T6, and T9 have twice the amount of marketable fruit than in control (35.57%) i.e., 65.2%, 64.94%, and 64.74% respectively. Figure 2 Effect of different treatments on shelf-life and marketable fruit% 4 Discussion During ripening, fruits undergo significant changes in their carbohydrate composition and organic acids. The TSS content increases with the breakdown of starch and sugar accumulation with storage time, as observed in the study throughout the storage period. 0.1% GA3-treated tomatoes recorded the lowest TSS values, signifying the effectiveness of GA3 in delaying the ripening process. However, despite these variations in TSS values, ANOVA results indicate these differences are not statistically significant. This was similar to the study conducted by Bhattarai and Gautam (2009) and Senevirathna and Daundasekera (2010). Furthermore, Genanew (2013) also observed the corresponding insignificancy of CaCl2 to TSS of tomato fruits during storage and suggested it could be due to less reduction by volume in solids, unlike liquids and gases. Shafiee et al. (2010) results on strawberries reported no effects of salicylic acid on the TSS values. On the contrary, as the storage period increased, the TA values were observed to decrease. This could be due to the fruit's utilization of the acids for metabolic activities of living tissues, resulting in the depletion of organic acids during storage (Bhattarai and Gautam, 2009). When compared to the control, the values were much higher in the treated tomatoes. GA3 and CaCl2 were the most effective treatments for the maintenance of TA levels. In this regard, the view of Pila et al. (2010) is noteworthy that calcium-treated fruits had significantly higher retention of TA which might be due to the reduction of metabolic changes of organic acid into water and carbon dioxide. Furthermore, Singh and Patel (2014) also reported the supremacy of GA3 over other treatments including borax and KHCO3 for having the highest TA (1.05%) on the 6th day of storage. The ability of GA3 to maintain higher titratable acidity may be attributed to its role in suppressing ethylene biosynthesis and delaying ripening-related metabolic processes, also observed by Devkota et al. (2019) and Senjaliya et al. (2015) in tomato fruits. Ünal et al. (2021) also reported higher values of TA at 10 days in tomatoes treated with salicylic acid. These sugar levels and acidity are crucial for determining the quality and taste of tomato fruit, both in its raw state and when processed (Lambeth et al., 1964). The relationship between the acidity and soluble solids i.e., ‘Sugar acid ratio’ is taken as the measurement of fruit maturity rather than assessing the acidity or soluble solids individually (Gustavo et al., 2003). Gautam and Bhattarai (2006) stated that sugar/acid balance and the astringent
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 58 compound result in “Flavor”. The higher sugar-acid ratio in T10 indicates a higher concentration of sugar than acid which correlates to higher level ripening and maturity. On the contrary, the lower TSS: acid ratio in treated tomatoes signifies that these treatments have potential anti-ripening effects (Asghari and Aghdam, 2010). pH in tomatoes progressively increases with maturation and is found to have increased with ripening (Yamaguchi, 1960). All treatments exhibited comparatively lower pH than the control however, except those treated with CaCl2 as it seemed to have little effect on the pH of tomatoes which was also in the case of a study conducted by Senevirathna and Daundasekera (2010) in tomatoes. All the concentrations of SA were able to maintain significantly lower levels of pH. Similar findings were reported by Pila et al. (2010) in tomatoes stored in ambient conditions. The concentration of ascorbic acid acts as an indicator of the fruit’s development stage and overall health. A decrease in ascorbic acid typically indicates senescence in fruit while an increase shows that the fruit is still in the ripening stage (Esteves et al., 1984).The findings of this study align with that of Pila et al. (2010) who observed the highest ascorbic acid content retention in tomato fruits treated with 0.1% GA3 and concluded all three treatments of gibberellic acid, calcium chloride, and salicylic acid were beneficial in retarding degradation of ascorbic acid content. Likewise, in the case of calcium chloride higher concentrations were more effective in the retention of ascorbic acid i.e., 1.5% CaCl2 (11.43 mg/100 g)> 1% CaCl2 (10.01 mg/100 g) > 0.5% CaCl2 (9.87 mg/100 g). Similar findings were observed by Mazumder et al. (2021) that the ascorbic acid content decreased with ripening, however, higher retention in ascorbic acid content was found in tomatoes treated with 1% to 2% CaCl2 harvested at the breaker stage after 10 days of storage duration. Such trends in tomatoes treated with CaCl2 were also observed by Chepngeno et al. (2016). The SA-treated tomatoes exhibited higher ascorbic acid content than the control, among which the highest observed in T9 (0.3 mM SA) valued at 10.36 mg/100 g. In justification of our result, Baninaiem et al. (2016) reported that SA-treated tomato fruits showed comparatively higher levels of ascorbic acid than the control set and suggested SA effectively protects the cell wall by decreasing the expression of degrading enzymes, slows down the ripening and hence reduces the degradation of ascorbic acid (concurrently with degradation of fruit tissues). The studies done by Changwal et al. (2021) also mentioned SA was found helpful in maintaining higher levels of ascorbic acid in tomatoes. Our findings on the shelf-life extension of tomatoes with the results of Pila et al. (2010) who reported that the fruits treated with 0.1% GA3, 1.5%CaCl2, and 0.4mM SA had the most significant extension of the shelf-life by 18, 17 and 15 days respectively. This can be attributed to the negative roles of GA3 in the ripening of tomatoes (Li et al., 2019; Dhami et al., 2023). Similarly, higher concentrations of CaCl2 (1% and 1.5%) resulted in tomatoes' longer shelf life as Bhattarai and Gautam (2009) reported that the higher the concentration of CaCl2, the higher the shelf-life. Moreover, fruits treated with SA did exhibit longer shelf-life days than the control, however, it wasn't as significant as other treatments. This discrepancy might be due to the concentrations of SA used to treat fruits and storage temperature, contrary to Mandal et al. (2016) who compared lower concentrations of SA (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mM) with higher concentrations of SA (1 and 1.2 mM) at refrigerated conditions and found that higher concentrations of SA were significantly effective in extending the shelf life of tomatoes up to 32.75 days. Likewise, the treatment of tomatoes with 0.75 mM salicylic acid prolonged the shelf life by 7 days along with a lower weight loss percentage, and was proved to be more effective than oxalic acid (Kant et al., 2013). The use of 0.1% GA3 and 1.5% CaCl2 as a postharvest treatment could provide a cost-effective solution which are rather readily available, and simple to prepare and use for smallholder farmers in Nepal. These plant growth regulators will not only extend the tomatoes' shelf life but also provide the farmers an opportunity to negotiate better prices for their hard work. This could potentially reduce postharvest losses and prove to be functional for commercial tomato farmers, retailers/wholesalers with improved marketability, and ultimately consumers. Future studies should investigate the efficacy of these treatments on the same variety as well as different varieties under varied environmental conditions to ensure broader applicability.
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 51-60 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 59 Authors’ contributions PD handled the sample collection, data collection, data analysis, and article writing. During the research period, KR served as the primary supervisor and helped with the article preparation in addition to coming up with the research topic. CB aided on the manuscript draft. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors sincerely acknowledge Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST), Purbanchal University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu and Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project (PMAMP), PIU Bhaktapur, Nepal for providing the opportunity to conduct this research. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Abbasi N., Zafar L., Khan H.A., and Qureshi A.A., 2013, Effects of naphthalene acetic acid and calcium chloride application on nutrient uptake, growth, yield and postharvest performance of tomato fruit, Pakistan Journal of Botany, 45(5): 1581-1587. Arah I.K., Ahorbo G.K., Anku E.K., Kumah E.K., and Amaglo H., 2016, Postharvest handling practices and treatment methods for tomato handlers in developing countries: A mini review, Advances in Agriculture, (1): 6436945. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6436945 Asghari M., and Aghdam M.S., 2010, Impact of salicylic acid on post-harvest physiology of horticultural crops, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21(10): 502-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2010.07.009 Baninaiem E., Mirzaaliandastjerdi A.M., Rastegar S., and Abbaszade K.H., 2016, Effect of pre-and postharvest salicylic acid treatment on quality characteristics of tomato during cold storage, Advances in Horticultural Science, 30(3): 183-192. Batu A., 2004, Determination of acceptable firmness and colour values of tomatoes, Journal of Food Engineering, 61(3): 471-475. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(03)00141-9 Bhandari N.B., Bhattarai D., and Aryal M., 2016, Demand and supply situation of tomato in Nepal, 2015/16, Agribusiness Promotion & Market Development Directorate, Ministry of Agriculture Development, Department of Agriculture, Government of Nepal, Lalitpur, Nepal. Bhattarai D.R., and Gautam D.M., 2009, Effect of harvesting method and calcium on postharvest physiology of tomato, Nepal Agriculture Research Journal, 7: 37-41. https://doi.org/10.3126/narj.v7i0.1864 Changwal C., Shukla T., Hussain Z., Singh N., Kar A., Singh V.P., Abdin M.Z., and Arora A., 2021, Regulation of postharvest tomato fruit ripening by endogenous salicylic acid, Frontiers in Plant Science, 12: 663943. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.663943 Chavan R.F., and Sakhale B.K., 2020, Studies on the effect of exogenous application of salicylic acid on post-harvest quality and shelf life of tomato fruit Cv. Abhinav, Food Research, 4(5): 1444-1450. https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(5).131 Chepngeno J., Owino W., Kinyuru J., and Nenguwo N., 2016, Effect of calcium chloride and hydrocooling on postharvest quality of selected vegetables, Journal of Postharvest Technology, 5(2): 23-40. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v5n2p23 Demes R., Satheesh N., and Fanta S.W., 2021, Effect of different concentrations of the gibberellic acid and calcium chloride dipping on quality and shelf-life of Kochoro variety tomato, Philippine Journal of Science, 150(1). https://doi.org/10.56899/150.01.30 Devkota P., Devkota P., Khadka R., Gaire K.R., and Dhital P.R., 2019, Effects of chemical additives on shelf life of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) during storage, Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University, 3: 69-76. Dhakal T., and Maharjan S., 2023, Post-harvest Technology Adoption and Income Patterns of Tomato Farmers in Nepal, Black Sea Journal of Agriculture, 6(4): 356-365. https://doi.org/10.47115/bsagriculture.1279959 Dhami J.C., Katuwal D.R., Awasthi K.R., and Dhami K.S., 2023, Effect of Different Post-Harvest Treatments on Quality and Shelf Life of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentumMill.) Fruits During Storage, Nepalese Horticulture, 17(1): 41-48. https://doi.org/10.3126/nh.v17i1.60631 Ding C.K., Wang C.Y., Gross K.C., and Smith D.L., 2002, Jasmonate and salicylate induce the expression of pathogenesis-related-protein genes and increase resistance to chilling injury in tomato fruit, Planta, 214: 895-901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-001-0698-9 Esguerra E.B., and Rolle R., 2018, Post-harvest management of tomato for quality and safety assurance: Guidance for horticultural supply chain stakeholders, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Esteves M.D.C., Carvalho V.D., Chitarra M.I.F., Chitarra A.B., and Paula M.D., 1984, Characteristics of fruits of six guava (Psidium guajava L.) cultivars during ripening. II. Vitamin C and tannin contents, pp. 490-500.
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International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 61-72 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 61 Research Insight Open Access Optimization and Application of High-Yield Cultivation Techniques for Yellow Pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) MinDong Jiaxing Realzen Ecological Agriculture Technology Co., Ltd, Jiaxing, 314200, Zhejiang, China Corresponding email: 13357168001@189.cn International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2 doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0007 Received: 02 Feb., 2025 Accepted: 08 Mar., 2025 Published: 02 Apr., 2025 Copyright © 2025 Dong, This is an open access article published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Preferred citation for this article: Dong M., 2025, Optimization and application of high-yield cultivation techniques for yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus), International Journal of Horticulture, 15(2): 61-72 (doi: 10.5376/ijh.2025.15.0007) Abstract The cultivation area of yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) is expanding globally, but its production faces challenges such as sensitivity to environmental conditions, insufficient understanding of agronomic requirements, and high labor intensity. This study systematically analyzes the cultivation techniques and strategies for yellow pitaya, focusing on optimizing water and fertilizer management, artificial pollination, and evaluating the adaptability of these techniques under different climatic conditions. The results indicate that proper fertilization management, organic cultivation practices, and artificial pollination significantly enhance yield and fruit quality. Integrating various cultivation techniques, combining organic and inorganic fertilizers, improving pollination methods, and implementing breeding programs could further promote efficient production of yellow pitaya. This study provides valuable guidance for growers, researchers, and policymakers, contributing to the sustainable development of the yellow pitaya industry. Keywords Yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus); Cultivation techniques; Yield improvement; Pest and disease management; Organic cultivation; Water and fertilizer management 1 Introduction Selenicereus megalanthus, commonly known as yellow pitaya or yellow dragon fruit, is a species in the cactus family (Cactaceae) that has gained considerable attention for its exotic flavor, striking appearance, and nutritional benefits (Tel-Zur et al., 2004; Morillo et al., 2022). Originally classified under the genus Hylocereus, recent taxonomic revisions have placed this species more accurately in the genus Selenicereus, recognizing its distinct botanical characteristics. It is native to the regions of Central and South America, particularly Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, where it has a long tradition of cultivation (Dag and Mizrahi, 2005; Goenaga et al., 2020). The cultivation of yellow pitaya has expanded globally, with commercial production mainly concentrated in Hainan, Guangdong, and Guangxi in China, as well as in countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico, and Guatemala (Goenaga et al., 2020). This crop is highly adaptable, thriving in environments ranging from very arid regions to areas with annual rainfall exceeding 3500 mm. Yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus)is rich in Vitamin C, dietary fiber, and antioxidants, and is widely praised for its health benefits, which has driven the demand for cultivation in new regions (Hua et al., 2018). Despite the expansion of cultivation, current farming practices face various challenges, including sensitivity to environmental conditions, limited understanding of specific agronomic requirements, and labor-intensive production methods (Rahman et al., 2015; Rabelo et al., 2020). These issues can negatively impact both the yield and quality of the fruit. Furthermore, variations in growth habits and fruiting patterns add to the difficulty of maintaining stable yields. In response to these challenges, integrated measures are necessary to develop standardized and adaptable cultivation techniques to meet the needs of different growing regions. Increasing the yield of yellow pitaya is crucial for several reasons. Higher yields can significantly enhance the economic viability of yellow pitaya cultivation, making it a more attractive option for farmers and investors (Dag and Mizrahi, 2005). Additionally, improved yields can meet the growing consumer demand for healthy and
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 61-72 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 62 diverse food products (Goenaga et al., 2020). Effective cultivation techniques, such as optimal nitrogen fertilization and hand pollination, have been shown to improve yield and fruit quality in yellow pitaya (Alves et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022). For instance, nitrogen fertilization has been found to increase yield, fruit quality, and cladode nutrient content in yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus), with the highest yield obtained at 300 g N per plant (Alves et al., 2021). Similarly, hand pollination has been identified as a necessary method to achieve high yields, as it ensures better fruit set and quality compared to spontaneous self-pollination or bee pollination (Dag and Mizrahi, 2005; Li et al., 2022). The study systematically explores the cultivation techniques and strategies of yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) to enhance its yield and quality. It analyzes various aspects of yellow pitaya cultivation, such as nutrient optimization, irrigation management, and pest and disease control, while also evaluating the applicability of these techniques under different climatic conditions to provide adaptable and region-specific solutions for farmers. This study intends to offer valuable insights for yellow pitaya growers, researchers, and policymakers, contributing to efficient cultivation and promoting sustainable development of yellow pitaya production. 2 Biological Characteristics and Growth Requirements 2.1 Botanical characteristics of yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) Yellow pitaya (Selenicereus megalanthus) is a climbing cactus renowned for its vibrant yellow peel. The plant features long, triangular stems with prominent ridges and spiny structures on the surface. These stems typically have three pronounced ridges, along which small clusters of spines are distributed, providing the plant with a degree of protective functionality (Sorace et al., 2016). Yellow pitaya exhibits strong branching, forming an extensive stem network that is well-suited for climbing or spreading along support structures. Its aerial roots assist in anchoring the plant to surfaces, thereby stabilizing it and promoting vertical growth (Morillo-Coronado et al., 2022). The flowers of yellow pitaya are large, highly fragrant, and typically bloom at night. They are white, trumpet-shaped, and can reach up to 30 cm in length. Classified as “ephemeral”, these flowers usually last for only one night. Yellow pitaya primarily relies on moths and bats for pollination. Although the plant is capable of self-pollination, cross-pollination significantly enhances fruit set and improves fruit quality (Paul et al., 2019; Rabelo et al., 2020). Upon successful pollination, the flowers develop into oval-shaped fruits with bright yellow scales covering the peel (Figure 1). The flesh is white, dotted with small black seeds, and is renowned for its sweet and refreshing flavor. The fruiting period varies depending on environmental conditions and cultivation practices. Research indicates that different cultivation systems can result in significant variations in fruit size and yield (Chu and Chang, 2020). 2.2 Environmental requirements for growth The yellow pitaya (S. megalanthus) is highly adaptable and capable of growing under a wide range of environmental conditions. However, optimal growth is achieved under specific conditions. Its photosynthesis mechanism, similar to most cacti, follows Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), which minimizes water loss by opening stomata at night, making it well-suited to arid environments (Rabelo et al., 2020). For optimal growth, yellow pitaya requires ample sunlight, with studies showing that approximately 70% light transmittance is ideal. The species is photoperiod-sensitive, and the length of daylight influences its flowering and fruiting cycles. Under controlled light conditions, shade cultivation can improve certain growth parameters, such as the number of fruits per stem segment and stem segment length (Victor et al., 2021). Yellow pitaya thrives in warm tropical climates, with an optimal temperature range of 18 °C to 30 °C. It is sensitive to frost and prolonged cold, which can adversely affect its growth and fruit production. Humidity also plays a critical role in its development, with a suitable range of 60%-80%. While the plant has some drought tolerance, regular watering during vigorous growth and flowering periods significantly promotes growth. However, overwatering can lead to root rot, making well-drained soil and controlled irrigation essential
International Journal of Horticulture, 2025, Vol.15, No.2, 61-72 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 63 (Morillo et al., 2023). Additionally, good air circulation is crucial for preventing fungal infections in humid conditions. Maintaining stable light, temperature, and humidity in controlled environments can enhance the plant’s overall productivity (Victor et al., 2021; Morillo-Coronado et al., 2022). Figure 1 Phases of reproductive phenology of yellow pitaya: (A) appearance of the floral bud, (B, C) floral button elongation, (D) onset of sepal detachment, (E) before the flower, (F) pollinated flower, (G) growing fruit, and (H) maturation of the fruit of S. megalanthus in Couto de Magalhães de Minas, Minas Gerais State, Brazil (Adopted from Rabelo et al., 2020) 2.3 Soil and climate requirements for cultivation S. megalanthus prefers well-drained soils with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5. The soil should be rich in organic matter and nutrients to support vigorous growth and high fruit yield. Organic cultivation practices, including the use of worm compost and other organic amendments, have been shown to significantly improve soil fertility and plant health (Fratoni et al., 2019). Nitrogen fertilization, in particular, has been identified as a critical factor in enhancing yield and fruit quality, with optimal rates varying depending on the specific growth cycle and environmental conditions (Alves et al., 2021; Victor et al., 2021). In terms of climate, yellow pitaya is best suited for cultivation in subtropical to tropical regions. Its flowering and fruiting processes require a distinct dry period, making areas with alternating wet and dry seasons particularly favorable for its growth (Rabelo et al., 2020). Regarding precipitation, an annual rainfall range of 600 to 1,200 mm is ideal, but proper drainage is essential to prevent waterlogging. Planting sites should be sheltered from strong winds to avoid physical damage to the stems and flowers, which could adversely affect yields. In regions prone to heavy rainfall, it is recommended to use raised beds or ridge planting systems to enhance drainage efficiency. 3 Seedling and Planting Techniques of Yellow Pitaya 3.1 Selection and cultivation of quality seedlings Selecting high-quality seedlings is crucial for establishing a healthy and high-yield yellow pitaya plantation. Key criteria for seedlings include vigor, disease resistance, and uniformity. Healthy seedlings should exhibit bright green stems, robust root systems, and no visible signs of pests or diseases (Zheng et al., 2018). Seedlings should be approximately 30 cm long and well-rooted, as these characteristics are indicative of healthy and vigorous plants capable of establishing quickly in the field (Victor et al., 2021). Additionally, seedlings should be selected based on their phenotypic traits, such as uniformity in size and absence of physical damage, to ensure consistent growth and yield (Morillo-Coronado et al., 2022). Yellow pitaya can be efficiently propagated through stem cuttings, a simple and effective method for preserving the genetic traits of the parent plant. Cuttings should be rooted in a substrate composed of vegetable soil and worm compost, which provides essential nutrients and promotes healthy root development (Victor et al., 2021). The use of a protective cultivation system with horticultural shade cloth allowing 70% sunlight penetration can
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