International Journal of Horticulture, 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 405-413 http://hortherbpublisher.com/index.php/ijh 407 methods are essential for sustainable yam production, especially in regions where traditional practices lead to low yields and environmental degradation (Kiba et al., 2020) (Figure 1). Figure 1 Yam crop planting and management process (Adopted from Morse, 2021) 3.2 Planning of optimal plant density and spacing Optimal plant density and spacing are critical for maximizing yam yield and ensuring efficient use of resources. Research indicates that soil surface coverage between 70 and 98 days after planting is an early indicator of tuber yield, suggesting that proper spacing can enhance soil coverage and subsequently improve yields (Pouya et al., 2022). Intercropping systems, such as yam-fluted pumpkin/melon-okra/maize, have been shown to reduce weed growth and increase the yield of component crops, highlighting the importance of selecting compatible intercrop combinations for better resource utilization (Weerarathne et al., 2017). Additionally, conservation agriculture practices, which include reduced tillage and residue retention, have been found to improve soil microclimate and nutrient uptake, further supporting the need for optimal plant density and spacing (Remya and Suja, 2023). 3.3 Strategies for pest, disease, and weed management Effective pest, disease, and weed management strategies are essential for sustainable yam production. The use of pesticides and neem leaf powder has been effective in managing plant parasitic nematodes and reducing tuber galling, leading to higher yields. Integrated weed management (IWM) strategies, including intercropping and the use of ground cover mulches, have been shown to significantly reduce weed biomass and improve crop yields (Nedunchezhiyan et al., 2018) (Figure 1). Conservation chemical practices have also been effective in reducing weed density and biomass, while improving soil quality and microbial activities. These strategies are vital for addressing the challenges of soil fertility, pest pressure, and weed infestation in yam cultivation. 4 Environmental and Climate Adaptation Management in Yam Cultivation 4.1 Climate-adapted cultivation techniques for yams Climate change poses significant challenges to yam cultivation, particularly in regions like West Africa where yams are a staple food crop. Various studies have explored different adaptation strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on yam productivity. For instance, changing sowing dates has been found to be ineffective in counteracting adverse climatic effects, whereas late-maturing cultivars coupled with irrigation and fertilizer application can significantly increase yam productivity by up to 49% depending on the climate scenario (Srivastava et al., 2016). Additionally, farmers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, have adopted mixed cropping and improved farming techniques as major adaptation strategies to cope with climate variations. In Cross River State, Nigeria, multiple cropping, crop diversification, and multiple planting dates are among the widespread adaptation practices employed by yam farmers.
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