Tree Genetics and Molecular Breeding 2024, Vol.14, No.6, 304-312 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/tgmb 306 2.3 Technological framework A closed-loop management model is essential for the effective implementation of precision viticulture. This model involves continuous data collection, analysis, and feedback, enabling viticulturists to make timely and informed decisions. Technologies such as variable-rate machines, robotics, and DSS are integral to this framework, providing the tools necessary for precise vineyard management (Ammoniaci et al., 2021). By leveraging these technologies, viticulturists can enhance the sustainability and efficiency of their operations, ultimately leading to higher yields and improved grape quality (Matese and Gennaro, 2015; Ferro and Catania, 2023). 3 Core Technologies in Precision Viticulture 3.1 Remote sensing and drone technology Remote sensing and drone technology are pivotal in monitoring vineyard health and growth dynamics. Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) and satellites provide high-resolution imagery that helps in assessing vine health, water content, and overall vigor through various vegetation indices (Hall et al., 2002; Sassu et al., 2021; Mucalo et al., 2024). These technologies enable the creation of prescription maps and variable rate applications, which enhance sustainability and efficiency in vineyard management by reducing the reliance on chemical interventions (Mucalo et al., 2024). The flexibility and low operating costs of UASs make them essential tools for vineyard variability monitoring and disease detection (Sassu et al., 2021). 3.2 Sensor networks Sensor networks, including wireless sensor networks (WSNs), are crucial for real-time environmental data collection in vineyards. These networks facilitate the monitoring of soil moisture and climate conditions, which are essential for optimizing irrigation strategies and managing crop water stress (Spachos and Gregori, 2019; Finco et al., 2022). For example, the Bioristor sensor developed by the U.S. National Research Council is an innovative tool based on flexible sensing technology that can monitor plant physiological parameters in real time, such as water potential, nutrient transport, and environmental responses. Its application in grapevines aims to enable remote and real-time monitoring of vineyard health by integrating IoT technology (Figure 2). The integration of WSNs with smart UAVs allows for uninterrupted monitoring and high-resolution data collection, optimizing production efficiencies and input applications (Spachos and Gregori, 2019). This real-time data collection supports decision-making processes, helping viticulturists to apply site-specific management practices effectively. Figure 2 Bioristor installation in grapevines (Adopted from Finco et al., 2022) Image caption: (a) IoT control unit; (b) Bioristor installed in two-year-old cane branches (Adopted from Finco et al., 2022) 3.3 Geographic information systems (GIS) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are employed for refined plot-based management and yield prediction. By integrating satellite data with ground-based measurements, GIS enhances the precision of vineyard management
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