Plant Gene and Trait 2025, Vol.16, No.3, 104-112 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/pgt 106 3.2 Biotechnological interventions Genetic engineering has opened new avenues for enhancing rice yield by directly modifying the plant’s genetic makeup. Techniques such as molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genetic engineering have been employed to introduce desirable traits such as improved photosynthesis, stress tolerance, and nutrient use efficiency. These interventions have the potential to break the yield ceiling by enhancing the plant's physiological and metabolic processes (Altaf et al., 2021; Vishwakarma et al., 2023). The CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology has revolutionized rice breeding by allowing precise modifications at specific genomic loci. This technology has been used to enhance traits such as yield, stress tolerance, and disease resistance. CRISPR-Cas9 enables the development of rice varieties that can thrive under suboptimal conditions, thereby contributing to sustainable yield improvements (Nutan et al., 2020). 3.3 Agronomic practices Integrated nutrient management (INM) involves the judicious use of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, and bio-fertilizers to optimize nutrient availability and uptake by rice plants. Studies have shown that INM can significantly enhance grain yield by improving plant density, leaf area index, and radiation use efficiency. For instance, integrated crop management practices in China have resulted in a 13.5% increase in grain yield compared to traditional farming practices (Wang et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2021). Effective water management is crucial for maximizing rice yield, especially in regions with limited water resources. Techniques such as intermittent irrigation and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) have been shown to improve water use efficiency and yield. SRI, in particular, involves practices like transplanting young seedlings and applying compost, which enhance root growth and nutrient uptake, leading to higher yields (Kassam et al., 2011). 3.4 Sustainable and climate-resilient approaches Developing stress-tolerant rice varieties is essential for ensuring stable yields under adverse environmental conditions such as drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures. Advances in molecular biology have facilitated the identification and incorporation of genes responsible for stress tolerance into high-yielding rice varieties. These stress-tolerant varieties are crucial for maintaining productivity in the face of climate change (Long, 2014; Nutan et al., 2020). Organic and low-input farming practices focus on reducing the reliance on synthetic inputs and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. These methods include the use of organic fertilizers, crop rotations, and biological pest control. While these practices may result in slightly lower yields compared to conventional methods, they offer long-term benefits such as improved soil health, reduced environmental impact, and enhanced resilience to climate change (Figure 1) (Cheng et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2021; Ye et al., 2021). Figure 1 Vertical view of different N and K rate on the leaf development at booting stage (Adopted from Ye et al., 2021)
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