Molecular Plant Breeding 2025, Vol.16, No.5, 287-293 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/mpb 291 6.3 Outcomes: improved cultivars and implications for large-scale cultivation Through these strategies, researchers have obtained a batch of newGinkgo biloba varieties with high flavonoid content and excellent ornamental traits. These varieties have enhanced the quality and output of medicinal raw materials and also expanded the options for landscaping and landscape beautification. The establishment of core germplasm banks and molecular marker-assisted selection have effectively enhanced breeding efficiency and germplasm management level, laying the foundation for large-scale promotion and industrialization (Wang et al., 2023; Yao et al., 2023). The new varieties obtained through hybrid breeding also show broad application prospects in the garden and bonsai markets (Ming, 2001). With the continuous progress of molecular biology and gene function research, Ginkgo biloba breeding will become more precise and efficient, promoting its development in the fields of medicine and ornamental (Han et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). 7 Challenges and Limitations 7.1 Long juvenile phase and dioecy complicating breeding cycles The juvenile period of Ginkgo biloba is very long, usually taking more than ten years to flower and bear fruit. This greatly prolongs the breeding cycle and also reduces the efficiency of new variety selection and breeding. In addition, Ginkgo biloba is dioecious, and it is difficult to distinguish between female and male plants in the early stage. During artificial hybridization, strict control of pollination targets is also required, which makes the breeding process more complicated and prolongs the cycle (Ming, 2001; Han et al., 2023). 7.2 Limited genomic resources and functional validation tools In recent years, some progress has been made in the sequencing of Ginkgo biloba genomes. However, the large and complex genomic structure, limited molecular markers, and the lack of an efficient genetic transformation system have restricted the research on functional genes and the development of molecular breeding. Most current studies rely on heterologous systems to verify gene functions, but the reliability and applicability of this approach are limited. The newly established protoplast transient expression system provides a new platform for functional validation, but still cannot replace the stable genetic transformation system (Han et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023; Yao et al., 2023). 7.3 Trade-offs between medicinal quality and ornamental traits The medicinal value of Ginkgo biloba mainly comes from the active components such as flavonoids and terpene lactones in its leaves, while its ornamental properties are mainly concentrated on the appearance features such as leaf color and leaf shape. Some ornamental traits (such as special leaf colors) may be negatively correlated with the accumulation of active ingredients, which makes it difficult to balance medicinal quality and ornamental traits simultaneously. In addition, there are significant differences in genetic basis between superior medicinal varieties and ornamental varieties, which also increases the difficulty of collaborative improvement (Wang et al., 2023; Li et al., 2025). 8 Future Perspectives 8.1 Application of multi-omics and big data in Ginkgo breeding With the development of genomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics, people have gained new insights into the genetic basis and functional genes of Ginkgo biloba. High-throughput sequencing and genotyping techniques have been employed to analyze the genetic diversity and population structure of Ginkgo biloba germplasm resources and to establish core germplasm banks. These achievements have laid the foundation for molecular breeding of medicinal and ornamental traits (Wang et al., 2023). Wang et al. (2023) and Yao et al. (2023) can more accurately locate functional genes, screen out superior genotypes, and accelerate the breeding process of high-quality varieties through the integration and analysis of genetic information based on big data. 8.2 Integrating molecular tools with conventional selection for efficiency Traditional hybridization, selection and grafting methods are crucial in improving the ornamental traits and enhancing the medicinal components of Ginkgo biloba, but these methods are limited by the long generation cycle and complex genetic background of Ginkgo biloba. In recent years, molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) and gene function analysis platforms have provided new tools for the early screening of target traits and gene
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