Molecular Plant Breeding 2025, Vol.16, No.4, 211-220 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/mpb 218 secondary panicles is more obvious. When planted very densely, it is mainly due to an increase in the number of kernels in the main panicle. Planting density and nitrogen fertilizer levels can affect the growth of maize and the development of its reproductive organs. When the density is low, it is easier to grow multiple ears and also more conducive to maintaining the stability of the kernel quantity. During the development of kernels, they can also be affected by the competition among kernels on the same spike, hormonal levels (such as ethylene, polyamines, IAA, ABA), and changes in sugar metabolism. If environmental problems such as high temperature and drought occur, or certain hormones are applied, it may also affect the kernel filling and development process. To achieve high maize yields, several models can be considered. If the seeds are not planted too densely and sown earlier, it can promote the development of secondary ears and make the yield more stable. This approach is suitable for areas with limited land but where a stable yield is desired. Under high density, to ensure that the main panicle also has a good seed setting rate, the yield can be increased through methods such as artificial synchronous pollination. The prerequisite for this is to select varieties with a high content of dry matter and high transportation efficiency. In terms of fertilization, if there is more nitrogen fertilizer, it will be beneficial to the development of secondary spikes. However, if there is insufficient nitrogen fertilizer or the plants are planted very densely, it is necessary to ensure the nutrient supply to the main panicles first. In addition, the combined use of artificial pollination, male sterility, and cross-pollination can further increase the number of kernels and yield. When encountering high temperatures or droughts, it is necessary to optimize the supply of sugar and hormone regulation in order to reduce the failure of kernel development and maintain the yield. In the future, scientists will be able to use high-throughput phenotypic technology to monitor the kernel development process more precisely. Combined with molecular markers, key regulatory factors such as MADS-box transcription factors and m6A methylation can be identified, which is very helpful for a deeper understanding of kernel development. In terms of breeding, there is now an increasing emphasis on developing new glutinous maize varieties that are both high-yielding and stress-resistant by regulating gene expression and epigenetics. In the future, intelligent management can also be introduced, such as using environmental monitoring equipment, intelligent irrigation and precise pollination systems, etc., to dynamically regulate the kernel development process. This not only ensures stable yields but also improves quality. These technologies have made “precise phenotyping + intelligent breeding” a new direction for achieving efficient agriculture. Acknowledgments The authors appreciate the guidance from Professor Gai. The authors also thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their modification suggestions on the manuscript of this study. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Amas J., Fernández J., Curin F., Cirilo A., Ciampitti I., and Otegui M., 2022, Maize genetic progress in the central Pampas of Argentina: effects of contrasting sowing dates, Field Crops Research, 281: 108492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108492 Borrás L., and Vitantonio-Mazzini L., 2018, Maize reproductive development and kernel set under limited plant growth environments, Journal of Experimental Botany, 69: 3235-3243. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erx452 Cao Z., Chen Z., Tang B., Zeng Q., Guo H., Huang W., Luo Y., Shen S., and Zhou S., 2024, The effects of sowing date on maize: phenology, morphology, and yield formation in a hot subtropical monsoon region, Field Crops Research, 309: 109309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2024.109309 D’Andrea K., Parco M., and Maddonni G., 2022, Maize prolificacy under contrasting plant densities and N supplies: II. growth per plant, biomass partitioning to apical and sub-apical ears during the critical period and kernel setting, Field Crops Research, 284: 108557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108557 Dai D., Ma Z., and Song R., 2021, Maize kernel development, Molecular Breeding, 41: 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11032-020-01195-9
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