Molecular Plant Breeding 2024, Vol.15, No.5, 282-294 http://genbreedpublisher.com/index.php/mpb 288 7.4 Ethical considerations in genetically modifying staple crops like maize The ethical considerations surrounding the genetic modification of staple crops like maize are multifaceted. On one hand, GE maize can contribute to food security and poverty alleviation by increasing crop yields and resilience to environmental stresses (Ahanger et al., 2017). On the other hand, there are concerns about the long-term ecological impacts, potential health risks, and the socio-economic implications for smallholder farmers who may become dependent on proprietary GE seeds (Hernández-Terán et al., 2017). Ethical debates also focus on the right to choose between GE and non-GE foods, the transparency of labeling, and the equitable distribution of the technology’s benefits (Zilberman et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2022). Balancing these ethical considerations requires a nuanced approach that takes into account the diverse perspectives of all stakeholders involved. 8 Case Study: Bt Maize in the United States 8.1 Overview of the introduction and commercialization of Bt maize Bt maize, a genetically engineered crop that produces insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), was introduced in the United States in the mid-1990s. This innovation aimed to provide maize with inherent protection against major insect pests, such as the European corn borer and the western corn rootworm. The commercialization of Bt maize followed extensive research and development, which demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing pest damage and the need for chemical insecticides (Gassmann and Reisig, 2022). By 2 009, Bt maize constituted a significant portion of the U.S. maize crop, with over 22.2 million hectares planted, representing 63% of the total maize acreage. 8.2 Agronomic, economic, and environmental outcomes of Bt maize adoption The adoption of Bt maize has led to several notable agronomic, economic, and environmental outcomes. Agronomically, Bt maize has significantly reduced crop damage from pests, leading to higher yields and more stable production (Gassmann and Reisig, 2022). Economically, the widespread use of Bt maize has resulted in substantial savings for farmers, both in terms of reduced insecticide costs and increased profits from higher yields. For instance, cumulative benefits over 14 years were estimated at $3.2 billion for maize growers in Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, with a significant portion of these benefits accruing to non-Bt maize growers due to regional pest suppression. Environmentally, Bt maize has contributed to a reduction in the use of chemical insecticides, which has positive implications for non-target species and overall ecosystem health. Studies have shown that Bt crops support conservation biological control by reducing the need for synthetic insecticides, thereby fostering an environment conducive to natural enemies of pests (Romeis et al., 2019). Additionally, the regional suppression of pest populations due to Bt maize adoption has extended benefits to other crops, including vegetables, by reducing the overall pest pressure in the agricultural landscape (Dively et al., 2018). 8.3 Lessons learned from the deployment of genetically engineered maize The deployment of Bt maize has provided several important lessons. One key lesson is the importance of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to delay the development of pest resistance. The evolution of resistance in pests such as the western corn rootworm has highlighted the need for strategies that include refuges of non-Bt maize and crop rotation to manage resistance effectively (Table 1) (Gassmann, 2021; Gassmann and Reisig, 2022). Another lesson is the necessity of continuous monitoring and adaptive management to address emerging challenges and ensure the long-term sustainability of Bt technology (Gassmann, 2021). 8.4 ScalingBt maize technology in other regions and its global impact Scaling Bt maize technology to other regions requires careful consideration of local agronomic conditions, pest pressures, and regulatory environments. The success of Bt maize in the United States provides a model for other countries, particularly in terms of the economic and environmental benefits. However, challenges such as resistance management and the need for robust regulatory frameworks must be addressed to ensure successful adoption (Meissle et al., 2014). Globally, the adoption of Bt maize has the potential to enhance food security by increasing maize yields and reducing losses due to pests, thereby contributing to more sustainable agricultural practices (Gouse et al., 2016).
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