Molecular Entomology 2024, Vol.15, No.2, 78-86 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/me 80 Figure 2 CPB resistance mechanisms to the organophosphate, carbamate, neonicotinoid and pyrethroid insecticides (Adopted from Molnár and Rakosy-Tican, 2021) Image caption: Black arrows indicate the mode of action of different insecticides. Red arrows indicate the developed CPB resistance mechanisms, which prevent the harmful effects of insecticides (red X) (Adopted from Molnár and Rakosy-Tican, 2021) In neonicotinoid insecticides, the pesticide works by binding to the acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), disrupting neural transmission. However, CPB has developed resistance to neonicotinoids through structural changes in the nAChR and mutations at binding sites. Regarding pyrethroids, CPB significantly reduces the impact of these insecticides on the nervous system through mutations in its sodium channel genes, such as the kdr gene mutation, leading to resistance. For organophosphates and carbamate insecticides, CPB renders these pesticides ineffective through mutations in the structure of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). CPB further enhances its resistance to various pesticides through enhanced metabolic pathways (e.g., increased activity of esterases, glutathione S-transferases, and cytochrome P450 enzymes) and strengthened excretion mechanisms. The presence of these resistance mechanisms has made traditional chemical control measures increasingly ineffective. The CPB is notorious for its rapid development of resistance to chemical insecticides. This resistance has been documented for over 54 different insecticides, making chemical control increasingly challenging (Schoville et al., 2017; Timani et al., 2023). The phenomenon known as the 'insecticide treadmill' describes the cycle of developing new chemicals to replace those that have become ineffective due to resistance. This resistance is facilitated by genetic adaptations, including high levels of nucleotide diversity and the presence of transposable elements in the CPB genome, which contribute to its rapid evolutionary changes. Monitoring and managing resistance through Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies are crucial to mitigate this issue (Balaško et al., 2020). 3.2 Cultural practices Crop rotation is a fundamental cultural practice in managing CPB populations. By rotating potato crops with non-host plants, the life cycle of the beetle is disrupted, reducing its population density and subsequent damage (Alyokhin et al., 2015). This practice is particularly effective because it prevents the beetle from establishing a stable population in a single location, thereby reducing the likelihood of severe infestations and the need for chemical interventions. Mechanical controls, such as hand-picking beetles and using barriers or traps, are traditional methods that can effectively reduce CPB populations, especially in smaller fields or home gardens. These methods are
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