Journal of Mosquito Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 247-255 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 250 4.2 Mosquito breeding habitats and preferences The breeding habitats of JEV vectors are crucial for understanding transmission dynamics. Culex mosquitoes, particularly Culex tritaeniorhynchus, prefer to breed in rice paddies, marshes, and other stagnant water bodies, which are abundant in many parts of Southeast Asia. These habitats provide ideal conditions for mosquito proliferation, especially during the monsoon season when water bodies are plentiful (Walsh et al., 2022). The presence of these breeding sites in close proximity to human dwellings and livestock farms increases the risk of JEV transmission (Pearce et al., 2018; Hurk et al., 2022). 4.3 Animal reservoirs and migration patterns Pigs and wild ardeid birds, such as egrets and herons, are significant reservoirs for JEV. Pigs are particularly important as they develop high viremia levels, making them efficient amplifying hosts (Hurk et al., 2022). Wild birds also play a critical role in the virus's ecology, as they can carry the virus over long distances during migration, potentially introducing JEV to new areas (Mulvey et al., 2021; Hameed et al., 2022). The movement and density of these animal populations, therefore, have a direct impact on the spread and outbreak potential of JEV (Hameed et al., 2022; Walsh et al., 2022). 4.4 Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem health Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem health can significantly influence JEV transmission. For instance, the loss of natural habitats and the creation of fragmented landscapes can alter the distribution and abundance of both vectors and hosts. Wetlands and rain-fed agricultural areas, which are often associated with high biodiversity, have been identified as high-risk landscapes for JEV outbreaks (Walsh et al., 2022). Additionally, climate change and urbanization can modify mosquito breeding sites and host availability, further affecting transmission dynamics. Increased surveillance and ecological studies are needed to better understand these complex interactions and to develop effective control strategies (Pearce et al., 2018; Faizah et al., 2020). 5 Case Study 5.1 Description of the selected location (region or country) For this case study, we focus on the recent emergence of Japanese Encephalitis (JE) in Australia. Historically, JE has been predominantly confined to Southeast Asia, but recent outbreaks have highlighted its potential for geographic expansion (Williams et al., 2022; Kwa et al., 2023). 5.2 Local environmental and ecological characteristics Australia's diverse climate and ecological zones provide a unique setting for the study of JE transmission. The country has a range of environments from tropical to temperate, which can influence mosquito populations and JE virus (JEV) transmission dynamics (Figure 2) (Hurk et al., 2022). Indigenous mosquito species, such as Culex annulirostris, have been identified as local vectors capable of transmitting JEV. Additionally, the presence of amplifying hosts like swine plays a crucial role in the local epidemiology of JE (Williams et al., 2022; Kwa et al., 2023). Hurk et al. (2022) presents an analysis of host-feeding patterns of Australian Culex mosquito species, focusing on their role in the transmission of Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV). Blood meal data from 16 948 samples across 11 species were categorized into three climatic regions: equatorial and tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The figure highlights the varying proportions of blood meals derived from different vertebrate hosts, including birds, pigs, and humans, which are key to the JEV transmission cycle. Mosquitoes such as Culex annulirostris and Culex quinquefasciatus show significant feeding on humans and birds, especially in tropical regions, while other species like Culex cylindricus exhibit strong feeding on humans across regions. The variations in feeding behavior across species and regions indicate the diverse ecological roles mosquitoes play in JEV transmission. This research provides crucial insights into vector-host interactions and the potential risk of JEV outbreaks based on mosquito feeding patterns and regional climatic factors.
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