Journal of Mosquito Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 237-246 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 240 conditions. Additionally, the use of predatory midge larvae, such as Chaoborus flavicans, has been explored, with studies showing high predatory impact on mosquito larvae, especially when combined with attractants like black pond dye to create population sinks (Cuthbert et al., 2019; Schiller et al., 2019; Dambach et al., 2020; Priyadarshana and Slade, 2023). 3.3 Parasitoids: infection and mortality induction Parasitoids, such as certain species of wasps, can infect mosquito larvae, leading to their death before reaching adulthood. Although not as widely studied as microbial agents or predators, parasitoids offer a unique mechanism of action by directly targeting the larval stages and inducing mortality through infection. The integration of parasitoids into mosquito control programs requires further research to optimize their effectiveness and understand their interactions with other control methods. 3.4 Genetic methods: disruption of mosquito reproduction Genetic methods, including the release of genetically modified mosquitoes and the use of bacteriophages to alter mosquito microbiota, aim to disrupt mosquito reproduction and reduce population sizes. For instance, bacteriophages targeting specific bacterial genera in the mosquito microbiota have been shown to affect larval development and survival, providing a novel approach to mosquito control. By manipulating the microbiota, it is possible to influence mosquito life-history traits and reduce their vector competence. This method highlights the potential of genetic and microbiota-based interventions in integrated mosquito management strategies (Barbosa et al., 2018; Alfano et al., 2019a; Tikhe and Dimopoulos, G., 2022). 4 Evaluating Effectiveness 4.1 Criteria for effectiveness in biological control The effectiveness of biological control agents against mosquitoes is determined by several criteria, including the reduction in mosquito population, the sustainability of the control method, and the impact on disease transmission. For instance, dragonfly and damselfly naiads have shown significant predation success, reducing mosquito larvae populations by an average of 45% per day, which indicates their potential as effective biological control agents (Priyadarshana and Slade, 2023). Additionally, the genetic diversity and adaptive capacity of control agents, such as Hydrochara affinis, are crucial for their long-term success in various environments (Kang et al., 2020). The ability of biological agents to maintain their effectiveness over time, without leading to resistance, is another critical factor. For example, the use of entomopathogenic bacteria like Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus is promising due to their slow rate of resistance development (Silva et al., 2020). 4.2 Field vs. laboratory trials Field and laboratory trials are essential for evaluating the effectiveness of biological control agents, but they often yield different results. Laboratory trials provide controlled conditions to measure specific outcomes, such as the predation rate of dragonfly naiads on mosquito larvae (Priyadarshana and Slade, 2023). However, these results may not always translate to field conditions, where environmental variables and ecological interactions come into play. For instance, the effectiveness of aquatic predators in laboratory settings may not be replicated in the field due to differences in habitat preferences and ecological dynamics (Dambach, 2020). Field trials, such as those conducted with Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) in Burkina Faso, demonstrate the practical application and sustainability of biological control methods over multiple transmission seasons, showing significant reductions in mosquito populations (Dambach et al., 2020). 4.3 Factors influencing success (environmental, ecological, genetic) Several factors influence the success of biological control agents, including environmental conditions, ecological interactions, and genetic attributes. Environmental factors such as seasonality and temperature can impact the effectiveness of biological methods. For example, heatwaves can lead to the loss of Wolbachia infection in mosquitoes, reducing the efficacy of this control method (Ogunlade et al., 2023). Ecological factors, such as the presence of alternative prey and predators, also play a role. The introduction of aquatic predators must be carefully managed to avoid negative impacts on local ecosystems (Dambach et al., 2020). Genetic factors, including the
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