Journal of Mosquito Research, 2024, Vol.14, No.5, 237-246 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 239 membrane insertion of toxins. The study suggests that Bti toxins, due to their highly specific and environmentally safe action, offer a promising alternative to chemical insecticides in mosquito vector control, addressing challenges such as insecticide resistance. Figure 1 Schematic representation of the mechanism of action of Cry and Cyt toxins fromBacillus thuringiensis svar. Israelensis in mosquito larvae (Adopted from Silva-Filha et al., 2021) Image caption: Crystals ingested by larvae are solubilized in the alkaline pH of the gut lumen (1). The protoxins are activated into toxins by proteases (2); and the Cry toxins can interact with a cadherin or with Cyt1Aa, which also act as a receptor (3); promoting Cry oligomerization (4). This oligomer binds with high affinity to midgut-bound receptors such as aminopeptidases-APN and alkaline phosphatase-ALP (5) and is inserted into the membrane, forming pores (6) that breakdown the cells and kill the larvae (Adopted from Silva-Filha et al., 2021) 3 Mechanisms of Action 3.1 Microbial agents: targeting larval stages Microbial agents, such as Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) and Bacillus sphaericus, have been extensively used for mosquito control due to their specificity and safety for non-target organisms. These microbial larvicides produce toxins that disrupt the gut cells of mosquito larvae, leading to their death. Recent advancements in long-lasting formulations of these microbial agents have shown promising results in maintaining their effectiveness over extended periods, thereby reducing the frequency of applications needed. Studies have demonstrated that these formulations do not significantly impact the abundance, richness, or diversity of non-target organisms in treated habitats, making them an ecologically safe option for mosquito control (Derua et al., 2018). 3.2 Predators: reducing adult mosquito populations Aquatic predators, such as dragonfly and damselfly naiads, have shown significant potential in controlling mosquito populations by preying on their larvae. Meta-analyses have revealed that these predators can reduce mosquito larval populations by up to 45% per day, indicating their effectiveness as biological control agents. However, the success of these predators in the field can vary due to habitat preferences and environmental
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