Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.4, 172-183 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 177 This immune response is further amplified by the activation of autophagy and the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) pathway, which contribute to the control of viral replication. The migration of LCs and DCs to the lymph nodes, as influenced by mosquito saliva, is a key step in the spread of the immune response beyond the initial site of infection. Figure 3 Simplified representation of the inoculation of virus and mosquito saliva into the skin (Adopted from Guerrero et al., 2020) Image caption: Recognition of the virus by LCs and DCs, and migration to lymph node. Effect of mosquito saliva on skin immune resident and infiltrating cells (Adopted from Guerrero et al., 2020) 5.2 Behavioral aspects of biting and pathogen release The behavior of mosquitoes during biting significantly impacts the efficiency of pathogen transmission. Mosquitoes exhibit specific feeding patterns that can influence the risk of infection. For example, the Culex pipiens complex, which includes several mosquito species, has adapted to human-altered environments and displays mixed feeding patterns on birds and mammals, including humans. This behavior increases the transmission of avian pathogens to humans (Sangbakembi-Ngounou et al., 2022). Moreover, the timing of mosquito biting can affect the success of vector control measures. In regions where malaria is endemic, a significant proportion of Anopheles mosquitoes bite during the daytime, when people are not protected by insecticidal nets, leading to residual transmission that is difficult to control (Brugueras et al., 2020). Understanding these behavioral aspects is crucial for designing targeted interventions to reduce the risk of pathogen transmission. 5.3 Environmental and ecological factors influencing transmission efficiency Environmental and ecological factors play a pivotal role in the distribution and transmission efficiency of mosquito-borne diseases (Farajollahi et al., 2011). Climate change, temperature, precipitation, and population density are key factors that influence the distribution of mosquito vectors and the risk of disease emergence or re-emergence (Maharaj et al., 2015). For instance, in southern Europe, climatic and environmental variables such as temperature and precipitation have been identified as significant risk factors for the distribution of vectors and the transmission of diseases like dengue, chikungunya, Zika virus, West Nile fever, and malaria1. Additionally, the genetic and ecological variation within mosquito species, such as Anopheles gambiae, can affect their susceptibility to pathogens and, consequently, the efficiency of disease transmission (Mitri and Vernick, 2012). These factors highlight the need for comprehensive studies on the impact of environmental changes on mosquito
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