Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 111-123 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 116 mosquito-borne diseases in India, emphasizing the need for continuous monitoring, prevention, and control measures to address these fluctuating disease burdens effectively. 5.2 Economic burden on healthcare systems The economic burden of MBDs is profound, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The direct and indirect costs associated with these diseases amount to an estimated US $12 billion per year globally (Chilakam et al., 2023). This economic strain includes out-of-pocket expenditures, catastrophic health expenditures, and impacts on gross domestic product (GDP). The financial burden is compounded by the need for extensive healthcare resources to manage and control outbreaks, which often leads to significant economic strain on healthcare systems in affected regions. Additionally, the economic impact is exacerbated by the need for ongoing surveillance, prevention, and control measures to mitigate the spread of these diseases (Näslund et al., 2021). 5.3 Long-term health effects on populations The long-term health effects of MBDs on populations are substantial. Many individuals who contract these diseases suffer from chronic health issues that persist long after the initial infection. For instance, severe cases of diseases like dengue and chikungunya can lead to prolonged joint pain and fatigue, significantly affecting the quality of life (Penhollow et al., 2021). Moreover, the potential for these diseases to spread beyond national borders through travel and trade poses a continuous threat to global health, necessitating a holistic approach to address these challenges (Naik et al., 2023). The adaptation of mosquito vectors to changing environmental conditions further complicates efforts to control these diseases, as it facilitates their establishment in new regions inhabited by immunologically naive populations (Näslund et al., 2021). 6 Prevention and Control Strategies 6.1 Vector control methods 6.1.1 Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are a cornerstone in the fight against mosquito-borne diseases, particularly malaria. ITNs work by providing a physical barrier that prevents mosquito bites and by killing mosquitoes that come into contact with the treated net (Seyoum et al., 2012). Studies have shown that ITNs significantly reduce malaria transmission and incidence, especially in areas with high mosquito density and where mosquitoes are active during sleeping hours (Pluess et al., 2010). However, the effectiveness of ITNs can be compromised by insecticide resistance in mosquito populations, necessitating the use of additional or alternative control measures. 6.1.2 Indoor residual spraying (IRS) Indoor residual spraying (IRS) involves the application of insecticides on the interior walls of homes, where mosquitoes are likely to rest. IRS has been shown to reduce malaria prevalence and incidence, particularly when non-pyrethroid insecticides are used in areas with pyrethroid-resistant mosquito populations (Pryce et al., 2022). The combination of IRS and ITNs can provide enhanced protection, although the benefits may vary depending on the type of insecticide used and local mosquito behavior (Protopopoff et al., 2015; Protopopoff et al., 2018). IRS alone has also been effective in reducing malaria transmission in both stable and unstable malaria settings. 6.1.3 Larval source management Larval source management (LSM) targets the aquatic stages of mosquitoes by eliminating or treating breeding sites (Mukabana et al., 2022). This method includes environmental management, such as draining stagnant water, and biological control, such as introducing larvivorous fish or bacteria that kill mosquito larvae (Tusting et al., 2013). LSM can be particularly effective in urban areas where breeding sites are more predictable and manageable. However, its success depends on thorough and continuous monitoring and community participation. 6.2 Vaccination and medical interventions 6.2.1 Current vaccines Vaccination is a promising strategy for the prevention of mosquito-borne diseases. The RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine, for example, has shown efficacy in reducing malaria cases among children in sub-Saharan Africa.
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