Journal of Mosquito Research 2024, Vol.14, No.3, 147-160 http://emtoscipublisher.com/index.php/jmr 154 5.2 Behavioral adaptations Behavioral adaptations are crucial for mosquitoes to evade control measures and exploit new environments. For example, mosquitoes have developed behavioral resistance to insecticides, which includes changes in feeding and resting behaviors to avoid contact with treated surfaces (Carrasco et al., 2019). In Tanzania, malaria vectors such as Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus have shown increased outdoor resting and a shift in host preference from humans to cattle, as a response to high coverage of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) (Kreppel et al., 2020). These behavioral changes help mosquitoes to avoid insecticide exposure and maintain their populations. Additionally, the ability of mosquitoes to adjust their life history traits, such as the timing of blood meals and mating behaviors, in response to environmental cues, further exemplifies their behavioral plasticity (Kang et al., 2020). The emergence of behavioral avoidance strategies in response to vector control measures underscores the importance of understanding mosquito behavior in the fight against vector-borne diseases (Kreppel et al., 2020). 5.3 Physiological adaptations Physiological adaptations enable mosquitoes to survive and reproduce under varying environmental conditions. In West Africa, Anopheles coluzzii populations exhibit distinct physiological responses to desiccation, with variations in protein, triglyceride, and metabolite levels, as well as gene expression related to energy metabolism, which support their survival during dry seasons (Hidalgo et al., 2016). The ability to enter diapause, a state of developmental arrest, allows mosquitoes to withstand unfavorable conditions, such as cold winters, by synchronizing their life cycle with seasonal changes (Batz et al., 2020). Moreover, the presence of chromosomal inversions in Anopheles gambiae has been associated with increased desiccation resistance, indicating that these genetic variations contribute to physiological adaptations for water homeostasis in arid environments (Fouet et al., 2012). The plasticity in transmission strategies of malaria parasites, such as relapses and recrudescences, also highlights the physiological adaptations of mosquitoes to optimize their transmission potential in response to the availability of vectors (Cornet et al., 2014). These physiological mechanisms are critical for the persistence and spread of mosquito populations in diverse ecological settings. 6 Impact of Climate Change on Mosquito Life Cycles 6.1 Changes in temperature and humidity patterns Climate change is significantly altering temperature and humidity patterns globally, which in turn affects mosquito life cycles. Mosquitoes, being ectothermic, are highly sensitive to temperature changes. Increased temperatures can accelerate mosquito development, increase biting frequency, and enhance the rate of pathogen development within mosquitoes (Ramasamy and Surendran, 2012; Afrane et al., 2012; Nosrat et al., 2021). For instance, studies have shown that higher ambient temperatures can lead to more frequent blood feeds and faster development of ingested pathogens, thereby increasing the transmission potential of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and chikungunya (Ramasamy and Surendran, 2012; Ryan et al., 2017). Additionally, changes in humidity and rainfall patterns can create more breeding sites, further boosting mosquito populations (Nosrat et al., 2021; Tahir et al., 2023). 6.2 Altered distribution of mosquito species Climate change is also causing shifts in the geographical distribution of mosquito species. As temperatures rise, mosquito species that were previously confined to tropical and subtropical regions are now being found in temperate zones and higher altitudes (Afrane et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2017; Andriamifidy et al., 2019). For example, the highlands of Africa, which traditionally had low ambient temperatures restricting mosquito distribution, are now experiencing increased temperatures that facilitate the spread of Anopheles mosquitoes, vectors of malaria and other diseases (Afrane et al., 2012). Similarly, the range of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus is expanding poleward and to higher elevations as they track optimal temperatures for transmission (Erickson et al., 2012; Ryan et al., 2017). 6.3 Implications for disease transmission The changes in mosquito life cycles and distribution due to climate change have profound implications for disease
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